FUEL  OIL 

IN 
INDUSTRY 


By 
STEPHEN  O.  ANDROS,  A.  B.,  E.  M. 

Member  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers. 
Former  Asst.  Prof,  of  Mining  Research,  Engineering 
Experiment  Station,  University  of  Illinois.  Author 
of  "Coal  Mining  in  Illinois"  and  "The  Petroleum 
Handbook." 


THE   SHAW   PUBLISHING   COMPANY 

910  South  Michigan  Blvd.,  Chicago. 

1920. 


' 


Copyright,  1920,  by 
THE  'SHAW    PUBLISHING   COMPANY 

Entered  at  Stationers'  Hall,  London 
All  rights  reserved 


Publications  of 

SHAW  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

OIL  NEWS 

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FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

An  exposition  of  the  qualities  of  fuel  oil  and  methods  of  testing, 
storing  and  burning  it,  together  with  a  full  description  of  its  applica- 
tion to  industrial  and  domestic  .  furnaces.  Price,  $3.75. 

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42373T 


CONTENTS 
Chapter  Page 

I.     Principles  of  Fuel  Oil  Combustion 5 

II.     Physical  and  Chemical  Properties  of  Fuel  Oil 17 

III.  Comparison  of  Coal  and  Fuel  Oil 44 

IV.  Colloidal  Fuel    61 

V.     Distribution  and  Storage  69 

VI.     Heating,  Straining,  Pumping  and  Regulating 117 

VII.     Arrangement  of  Boiler  Furnaces 132 

VIII.     Types  of  Fuel  Oil  Burners 145 

IX.     Fuel  Oil  in  Steam  Navigation 157 

X.     Oil-Burning  Locomotives   171 

XI.     The  Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel 184 

XII.     Heat   Treating   Furnaces 193 

XIII.  Fuel  Oil  in  the  Production  of  Electricity 198 

XIV.  Fuel  Oil  in  the  Sugar  Industry 206 

XV.     Fuel  Oil  in  the  Glass  Industry   216 

XVI.     Fuel  Oil  in  Ceramic  Industries   223 

XVII.     Heating  Public  Buildings,  Hotels,  and  Residences 230 

XVIII.     Oil    in    Gas-Making 237 

APPENDIX.     Fuel  Oil  Uses 241 

INDEX.                                                                                                             .  242 


TABLES 

Page 

1.  Pounds  of  Air  per  Pound  of  Oil  and  Ratio  of  Air  Supplied  to 

that  Chemically  Required 7 

2.  Boiler  Efficiency  for  Excess  Air  Supply  (Oil  Fuel) 8 

3.  CO2  and  Fuel  Losses 10 

4.  Physical  Changes  in  Air  Due  to  Temperature 15 

5.  Analyses  of  Typical  American  Oils  Used  as  Fuel 18 

6.  Equivalent  Readings  for  the  Saybolt,  Redwood  and  Engler  Vis- 

cometers    25 

7.  Baume  Scale  and  Specific  Gravity  Equivalents 32 

8.  Conversion  of  Barometric  Pressure  in  Centimeters  to  Inches....  34 

9.  Corrections  of  Flash  Point  for  Normal  Barometric  Pressures 36 

10.  Calorific  Values  of  Various  Oils 41 

11.  Production  of  Coal  in  United  States 45 

12.  Analyses  of  Coals  of  Illinois,  Indiana  and  Western  Kentucky....     40 

13.  Coal  Burned  During  Banking  Periods 53 

14.  Stack  Sizes  for  Oil  Fuel 144 

15.  Comparative  Performances  of  Oceanic  Steamship  Mariposa,  Using 

Oil  as  Fuel , 161 

16.  Factor  for  Equivalent  Evaporative  Values,  Coal  vs.  Oil 178 

17.  Average  Coal  and  Oil  Costs 179 

18.  Locomotive  Fuel  Results 179 

19.  Atomizer  Pressures   181 

20.  Fuel  Consumed  in  Production  of  Electric  Power  in  First  Three 

Months  of  1920 199 

21.  Sources  of  Electric  Power — Thousands  of  Kilowatt-Hours  Pro- 

duced       200 

22.  Evaporative  Test  of  Oil-Fired  Boiler  at  Electric  Plant 203 

23.  Analyses  and  Calorific  Values  of  Begasse 209 

24.  Monthly  Fuel  Requirements  in  Percentages  of  Total  for  Season..   230 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Figure  Page 

1.  Curves  Showing  Heat  Losses  Due  to  Excess  Air 9 

2.  Orsat  Apparatus  for  Testing  Flue  Gases 11 

3.  Dense  Smoke  from  Burning  Oil  Tanks 12 

4.  Saybolt  Standard  Universal  Viscosimeter 21 

5.  The  Engler  Viscosimeter 24 

6.  Chart  for  Quick  Determination  of  Saybolt  Equivalents 26 

7.  Proper  Method  of  Reading  Hydrometer 28 

8.  Tagliabue  Closed-Cup  Tester 31 

9.  The  Mahler  Calorimeter 38 

10.  An  Electrically  Driven  Centrifuge 40 

11.  Bedded  Impurities  in  a  Seam  of  Illinois  Coal 45 

12.  Size  Elements  of  Lump  Coal  and  Screenings 46 

13.  Percentage  of  Weight  of  Coal  Which  Passes  Through  Various 

Screens    48 

14.  Influence  of  Moisture  in  Coal  on  Evaporative  Power  of  the  Fuel.     51 

15.  Influence  of  Ash  on  Fuel  Value  of  Dry  Coal 52 

16.  Colloidal  Fuel  After  Standing  One  Year  Under  Water 62 

17.  The  Oil  Tanker  "Nuuanu" 70 

18.  An  Oil  Barge  on  San  Francisco  Bay 71 

19.  Delivering  Fuel  Oil  to  a  Mail  Steamer 72 

20.  Pump  for  Loading  Barges  with  Fuel  Oil 73 

21.  Derrick  for  Handling  Heavy  Hose  on  Barge 74 

22.  A  Tank  Car 75 

23.  Storage  Tank  Along  the  Mexican  Railway 78 

24.  Locomotive  Loading-Tanks  Along  Lines  of  the  United  Railways 

of  Havana   79 

25.  Reservoir  Tank  with  Automatic  Float  Valve 81 

26.  Steel  Storage-Tank  for  Fuel  Oil 82 

27.  A  Typical  Reinforced  Concrete  Fuel  Oil  Reservoir 83 

28.  Concrete  Oil  Tanks  Which  Without  Damage  Withstood  a  Hur- 

ricane and  Flood 92 

29.  A  Tank  Truck 115 

30.  Temperature-Capacity  Curve  for  Mechanical  Oil  Burner 119 

31.  Heater  Used  with  Live  or  Exhaust  Steam 120 

32.  A  Type  of  Spiral  Heater 121 

33.  Pumps  and  Heaters  at  City  and  County  Hospital  Power  Plant, 

San  Francisco  . , 123 

34.  A   simple   Oil   Strainer 124 

35.  Another  Type  of  Strainer 124 

36.  A  Modern  Pumping  System 125 

37.  Another  Type  of  Pumping  System 126 

38.  A  Pulsometer  127 

39.  Burner  Regulator   128 

40.  Master    Controller 129 

41.  Interlocking  Damper   Device 131 

42.  Fuel  Oil  Pump  Set  Controlled  by  Regulator 133 

43.  Fuel  Oil  Pumping,  Heating,  and  Regulating  System  for  Power 

Boilers   135 

44.  Application  of  Baffle  Wall 136 

45.  Eliminating  Dead  Spaces  with  Baffles 137 

46.  An  Inclined  Baffle 137 

47.  An  Oil-Burner  Under  a  Vertical  Tubular  Boiler 138 

48.  Oil  Burning  System  for  Scotch  Marine  Boilers 139 

49.  Application  of   Oil-Burning   System  to  the   Stirling  Watertube 

Boiler   140 

50.  Oil  Burning  System  Applied  to  Return-Tubular  Boiler 141 

51.  A  Babcock  and  Wilcox  Oil  Furnace,  Patented 142 

52.  A  Mechanical  Oil  Burner. .  146 


Figure  Page 

53.  Classes   of    Spray   Burners 148 

54.  Possible  Modifications  of  the  Drooler  Burner 150 

55.  Types  of   Burner  Tips 153 

56.  "Coaling  Ship"  158 

57.  Fuelling  with  Oil 163 

58.  Fuelling  Station  at  Palik  Papan,  Dutch  Borneo 164 

59.  Fire  Room  of  S.  S.  Manoa 165 

60.  Hinged  Firing  Front  for  Scotch  Marine  Boilers 166 

61.  Oil-Burning  French  S.  S.  Lieutenant  de  Missiessy 169 

62.  General  Arrangement  of   the   Staples   and   Pfeiffer   System   for 

Scotch    Marine    Boilers 173 

63.  Oil  Burning  Equipment  as  Applied  to  Santa  Fe  Locomotives...  174 

64.  Locomotive  Firebox  and  Fire  Pan  Arrangement  with  Oil  Burn- 

ers     175 

65.  The  Booth  Oil  Burner  Used  as  a  Standard  on  the  Santa  Fe....  177 

66.  Von  Boden-Ingalls  Burner 178 

67.  Arrangement  of  Oil  Burning  Equipment  as  Used  by  The  Bald- 

win   Locomotive    Works 180 

68.  Iron  Ore  Blast  Furnace 184 

69.  Bessemer    Converter 185 

70.  Sketch  of  Oil  Burning  Open-Hearth  Furnace 186 

71.  Water  Cooled  Oil-Burner  in  Open-Hearth  Furnace 187 

72.  Swinging  Oil  Burners  in  Open-Hearth  Furnace 187 

73.  Layout  of   Oil   System 188 

74.  Construction   of   Oil   Storage  Tank 189 

75.  Charging  an  Oil-Burning  Open-Hearth  Furnace 191 

76.  Furnace  for  Case  Hardening  and  Heat  Treating  Gears 194 

77.  Continuous   Rod-Heating   Furnace 194 

78.  Oil-Burning  Brass-Melting  Furnace 195 

79.  Tempering   Bath    Furnace 195 

80.  Large    Car-Type    Furnace 196 

81.  Oil  Heaters  and  Pumps  in  California  Electric  Plant 201 

82.  Boiler    Room    Showing    Piping   for    Oil    Burners    in    California 

Electric  Plant    202 

83.  Mill  for  Crushing  Sugar  Cane 207 

84.  Furnace  Burning  Begasse  and  Oil 207 

85.  Typical   Filter    Press 208 

86.  Centrifugal    Separator    210 

87.  Type    of    Char-Filter 212 

88.  Oil-Driven  Tractor  Pulling  Plows  on  Sugar  Estate 213 

89.  Typical  Closed  Pot  for  Glass  Making 217 

90.  Regenerative  Furnace    217 

91.  Glass  Tank  Equipped  with  Oil  Burners 218 

92.  Blowing  Window  Glass 219 

93.  Glory   Hole   Furnace 220 

94.  An  Oil-Burning  Brick  Kiln 224 

95.  Periodic  Lime  Kiln 225 

96.  Oil-Burning  Rotary  Cement  Kiln 225 

97.  Oil-Burning  Rotary  Cement  Kiln 227 

98.  Oil-Burner  Installation  at  San  Francisco  Hospital 231 

99.  Firebox  Construction  of  Schoolhouse  Hot-Air  Furnace 231 

100.  Oil-Burner  Equipment  Installed  in  San  Francisco  Schools 232 

101.  Fuel  Oil  Burner  Installation  in  Chicago  Schools 233 

102.  Boiler  Room  of  Modern  60-Room  Apartment  Hotel 234 

103.  Fuel  Oil  Heating  Residence  Boiler  and  Kitchen  Range 235 

104.  Oil-Burner  Applied  to  Hotel  Range 235 

105.  Oil-Burner  Applied  to  Bakers'  Oven 236 

106.  Apparatus  for  Gas  Making  by  Lowe  Process 238 

107.  Charging  Floor  of  Gas-Generating  Apparatus 239 


CHAPTER  I 

PRINCIPLES    OF   FUEL   OIL   COMBUSTION 

Combustion  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  a  chemical  union 
of  oxygen  with  some  combustible  material  such  as  carbon.  The 
decaying  autumn  leaf  is  an  example  of  combustion.  In  this  case 
the  organic  matter  of  the  leaf  forms  a  slow  chemical  union  with 
the  oxygen  of  the  air.  Heat  accelerates  all  chemical  unions  and 
the  greater  the  intensity  of  the  heat  applied,  the  more  rapidly  the 
elements  unite.  The  process  of  the  combustion  of  the  autumn  leaf 
is  slow  because  insufficient  heat  is  developed  to  induce  rapid  com- 
bustion. 

The  explosion  of  black  powder,  dynamite  or  any  other  of  the 
high  explosives,  is  another  example  of  combustion.  Black  pow- 
der is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  sulphur,  charcoal  and  potassium 
nitrate.  In  this  mixture  theoretically  each  particle  of  sulphur  has 
beside  it  one  particle  of  charcoal  and  one  particle  of  potassium 
nitrate.  Sulphur,  which  burns  easily,  is  put  in  the  mixture  to 
generate  sufficient  heat  for  the  liberation  of  the  oxygen  which  is 
contained  in  the  potassium  nitrate.  Inasmuch  as  all  of  the  ele- 
ments necessary  for  combustion,  that  is,  heat-giving  substance, 
combustible  material,  and  oxygen  are  combined  in  black  powder, 
the  rate  of  burning  is  thousands  of  times  greater  than  is  that  of  the 
decaying  automn  leaf.  Since  sulphur,  charcoal,  and  potassium 
nitrate  are  only  mechanically  mixed,  it  follows  that  in  practice 
every  particle  of  sulphur  does  not  have  adjacent  to  it  a  particle 
of  charcoal  and  a  particle  of  potassium  nitrate.  Accordingly  the 
speed  of  combustion  of  black  powder  is  relatively  slow  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  high  explosives  in  which  the  oxygen-carry- 
ing material  and  the  combustible  are  chemically  united  so  that  no 
matter  how  finely  the  explosive  may  be  divided,  each  atom  is  com- 
posed of  the  combustible  and  of  the  oxygen-giving  material.  The 
heat  necessary  for  the  union  of  combustible  and  oxygen  in  the 
high  explosives  is  generated  by  an  easily  explosible  detonator. 
The  intense  rapidity  of  combustion  in  high  explosives  is  shown  ,bv 
the  fact  that  if  a  pipe  five  miles  long  were  filled  with  nitroglycerine 


OIL\IN  INDUSTRY 


and  a  blasting  cap  detonated  at  one  end,  the  entire  column  would 
be  converted  into  gas  in  about  one  second. 

From  these  examples  it  will  be  seen  that  the  speed  and  effi- 
ciency of  combustion  depend  upon  the  intimacy  of  the  mixture 
of  combustible  material  with  oxygen,  and  that  combustion  may 
extend  over  a  long  period  of  time  or  may  be  instantaneous.  To 
the  engineer,  combustion  means  the  chemical  union  of  the  com- 
bustible of  a  fuel  and  the  oxygen  of  the  air  at  such  a  rate  as  to 
cause  rapid  increase  in  temperature. 

Fuel  oil  consists  principally  of  various  combinations  of  hy- 
drogen whose  chemical  symbol  is  H,  and  carbon  (C),  together 
with  small  amounts  of  nitrogen  (N),  oxygen  (O),  sulphur  (S), 
and  water  (H2O).  The  moisture  in  oil  fuel  should  not  exceed 
two  percent  because  it  not  only  acts  as  an  inert  impurity,  but 
must  be  converted  into  steam  in  the  furnace,  which  still  further 
reduces  the  heat  value  of  the  fuel  per  pound.  In  the  ordinary 
furnace  all  the  oxygen  for  the  combustion  of  fuel  oil  is  obtained 
from  the  air  which  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  79.3  parts  of 
nitrogen  by  volume  and  20.7  parts  of  oxygen. 

When  the  combustible  elements  of  fuel  oil  unite  with  oxygen 
they  do  so  in  definite  proportions  which  are  always  the  same 
Carbon,  hydrogen  and  sulphur  require  theoretically  a  certain  fixed 
amount  of  air  for  complete  burning.  The  formula  for  the  com- 
plete combustion  of  carbon  is  C  -|-  O2  =  CO2.  One  pound  of 
carbon  requires  for  complete  combustion  2.66  pounds  of  oxygen. 
The  dry  air  requirements  for  the  combustion  of  one  pound  of 
carbon  are  11.58  pounds.  The  formula  for  the  combustion  of 
hydrogen  is  2H2  +  O2  =  2(H2O)  (water).  One  pound  of  hy- 
drogen requires  for  complete  combustion  8.00  pounds  of  oxygen. 
For  the  combustion  of  one  pound  of  hydrogen,  34.8  pounds  of 
dry  air  are  required.  The  formula  for  the  complete  combustion 
of  sulphur  is  S  -(-  O2  =  SO2.  One  pound  of  sulphur  requires  for 
its  complete  combustion  1.00  pound  of  oxygen.  For  the  combus- 
tion of  one  pound  of  sulphur,  4.35  pounds  of  dry  air  are  necessary. 

The  theoretical  air  requirements  for  different  densities  of 
fuel  oil  have  been  compiled  by  C.  R.  Weymouth  (Trans.,  A.  S. 
M.  E.,  Vol.  30,  p.  803),  and  are  given  in  Table  1. 

It  is  not  possible  to  burn  oil  practically  with  the  theoretical 
air  requirements,  and  sometimes  in  furnaces  of  poor  design  100 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FUEL  OIL  COMBUSTION 


to  200  percent  of  excess  air  is  used  with  a  resulting  great  loss  of 
heat.  The  maximum  excess  air  required  should  be  25  percent. 
Insufficient  air  gives  incomplete  combustion  with  a  consequent 
loss  in  unburned  heat  units  and  an  excess  of  air  cools  the  flame 
and  carries  away  large  quantities  of  heat  in  the  flue  gases.  The 
air  excesses  for  various  boiler  efficiencies  are  given  in  Table  2. 

Table  1.— POUNDS  OF  AIR  PER  POUND  OF  OIL  AND  RATIO  OF  AIR 
SUPPLIED  TO  THAT  CHEMICALLY  REQUIRED. 


Percent  CO2 

Light  Oil. 

Medium  Oil. 

Heavy  Oil. 

by  Volume 

C,  84%;  H,  13%;  S, 

C,  85%;  H,  12%;  S, 

C,  86%:  H.  11%: 

as  Shown  by 

0.8%;  N,  0.2%;  O,  1%; 

0.8%;  N,  0.2%;  O,  1%;  )S,  O.S  %;  N,  0.2  %;  O'.'l  % 

Analysis  of 

H'O,  1  %. 

H2Q,  1  %. 

H'O,  1  %. 

Dry 

Chimney 

Lb.  of 

Ratio  of  Air  !      Lb.  of 

Ratio  of  Air 

Lb.  of 

Ratio  of  Air 

Gases. 

Air  per 
Lb.  of  Oil. 

Supply  to 
Chemical 

Air  per 
Lb.  of  Oil. 

Supply  to 
Chemical 

Air  per 
Lb.  of  Oil. 

Supply  to 
Chemical 

Require- 

Require- 

Require- 

ments. 

ments. 

ments. 

4 

51.40 

3.607 

51.93 

3.704 

52.45 

3.803 

5 

41.31 

2.899 

41.71 

2.975 

42.12 

3.054 

6 

34.58 

2.427 

34.90 

2.490 

35.23 

2.554 

7 

29.77 

2.089 

30.04 

2.143 

30.31 

2.198 

8 

26.17 

1.836 

26.39 

1.883 

26.62 

1.930 

9 

23.37 

1.640 

23.56 

1.680 

23.75 

1.722 

10 

21.12 

1.482 

21.29 

1.518 

21.45 

.555 

11 

19.83 

1.391 

19.43 

1.386 

19.58 

.419 

12 

17.76 

1.246 

17.88 

1.276 

18.01 

.306 

13 

16.46 

1.155 

16.57 

1.182 

16.69 

.210 

14 

15.36 

1.078 

15.45 

1.102 

15.55 

.127 

15 

14.39 

1.010 

14.48 

1.033 

14.57 

.056 

Figure  1  shows  the  heat  losses  due  to  excess  air  in  burning 
fuel 

It  is  well  known  that  with  charcoal  or  coke  a  very  intense 
combustion  can  be  maintained  with  very  little  smoke  and  within 
a  comparatively  small  space.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  even  at 
the  highest  temperature  the  fuel  is  solid.  Therefore,  no  carbon 
can  leave  the  fuel  bed  except  as  a  constituent  of  CO  or  CO2. 
When  carbon  is  not  supplied  with  sufficient  air  for  complete  com- 
bustion it  burns  to  CO  instead  of  to  CO2.  When  carbon  is  burned 
only  to  CO  it  provides  only  two-thirds  of  the  heat  which  it  is 
capable  of  yielding  up  when  burned  to  CO2.  When  completely 
burned,  fuel  which  consists  of  100  per  cent  carbon  will  show  a 
percentage  by  volume  of  20.7  CO2  in  the  flue  gases.  Under  good 
furnace  conditions,  when  burning  fuel  oil  which  contains  a  high 
percentage  of  carbon  the  average  theoretical  CO2  percentage  of 
flue  gases  is  from  13  to  14  per  cent.  Table  3  shows  the  corre- 


8 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


spending  losses  that  occur  when  various  percentages  of  C(X  are 
indicated  in  the  flue  gases. 

In  order  to  determine  whether  the  fuel  oil  is  obtaining  the 
correct  amount  of  air,  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  the  flue  gases. 
A  flue  gas  analysis  gives  the  proportion  by  volume  of  the  principal 
constituent  gases  produced  by  the  combustion  of  any  fuel.  The 
gases  usually  determined  in  such  an  analysis  are  CO2,  O,  and  CO. 
The  volume  remaining  after  these  gases  are  removed  is  considered 
to  be  nitrogen  (N). 

The  apparatus  most  commonly  used  for  flue  gas  analysis  is 
known  as  the  Orsat.  The  Orsat  apparatus  (See  fig.  2)  is  de- 
Table  2.— BOILER  EFFICIENCY  FOR  EXCESS  AIR  SUPPLY  (OIL 

FUEL) 


Excess  Air  Supply,  Percent  

10 

50 

75 

100 

150 

200 

Assumed  temperature  of  escap- 
ing gases,  deg.  Fahr 

400 

450 

475 

490 

Over 
500 

Over 
500 

Corresponding  ideal  efficiency  of 
boiler,  percent  
Possible  saving  in  fuel  due  to  re- 
duction of  ail  supply  to  10  per 
cent  excess,  expressed  as  per- 
cent of  oil  actually  burned  un- 
der assumed  conditions  

84.2 
0 

80.27 
4.67 

77.66 

7.78 

75.22 
10.68 

Under 
70.94 

Over 
15.76 

Under 
67.09 

Over 
20.32 

scribed  as  follows :  "The  burette  "a"  is  graduated  in  cubic  centi- 
meters up  to  100,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  water  jacket  to  prevent 
any  change  in  temperature  from  affecting  the  density  of  the  gas 
being  analyzed.  For  accurate  work  it  is  advisable  to  use  four 
pipettes,  "b,"  "c,"  "d,"  "e,"  the  first  containing  a  solution  of 
caustic  potash  for  the  absorption  of  carbon  dioxide,  the  second 
an  alkaline  solution  of  pyrogallol  for  the  absorption  of  oxygen, 
and  the  remaining  two  an  acid  solution  of  cuprous  chloride  for 
absorbing  the  carbon  monoxide.  Each  pipette  contains  a  number 
of  glass  tubes,  to  which  some  of  the  solution  clings,  thus  facilitat- 
ing the  absorption  of  the  gas.  In  the  pipettes  "d"  and  "e,"  copper 
wire  is  placed  in  these  tubes  to  re-energize  the  solution  as  it  be- 
comes weakened.  The  rear  half  of  each  pipette  is  fitted  with  a 
rubber  bag,  one  of  which  is  shown  at  "k,"  to  protect  the  solution 
from  the  action  of  the  air.  The  solution  in  each  pipette  should 
be  drawn  up  to  the  mark  on  the  capillary  tube.  The  gas  is  drawn 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FUEL  OIL  COMBUSTION          9 

into  the  burette  through  the  U-tube  "h,"  which  is  filled  with  spun 
glass,  or  similar  material,  to  clean  the  gas.  To  discharge  any  air 
or  gas  in  the  apparatus,  the  cock  "g"  is  opened  to  the  air  and  the 
bottle  "f "  is  raised  until  the  water  in  the  burette  reaches  the  100 
cubic-centimeter  mark.  The  cock  "g"  is  then  turned  so  as  to  close 
the  air  opening  and  allow  gas  to  be  drawn  through  "h,"  the  bottle 
"f"  being  lowered  for  this  purpose.  The  gas  is  drawn  into  the. 
burette  to  a  point  below  the  zero  mark,  the  cock  "g"  then  being 
opened  to  the  air  and  the  excess  gas  expelled  until  the  level  of 
the  water  in  "f"  and  in  "a''  is  at  the  zero  mark.  This  operation 
is  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  zero  reading  at  atmospheric 


2  ! 
10— g 
100-™ 


3    Carbon  Dioxide  (COj)  and  Oxygen  (O),  percent    13      U      15      16      17      18      19     2C 

—  20  Excess  air.  pounds  50    60   70  80  90 400 

—  200 300  400    Excess  air,  percent       700 800  900 1000 

6.000 10,000—  Loss.  B   T    U —15,000  —20.000 

FIG.  1. — Curves  showing  heat  losses  due  to  excess  air.  Calculated  on  follow- 
ing conditions:  Oil  as  fired — 18633  B.  t.  u.,  84.73  per  cent  carbon.  11.74 
per  cent  hydrogen,  1.06  per  cent  sulphur,  o  per  cent  nitrogen,  0.87  per 
cent  oxygen,  0.7  per  cent  moisture,  and  0.4  per  cent  sediment;  atmos- 
pheric temperature,  55°  F. ;  humidity,  88;  stack  temperature,  500°  F.; 
Kern  oil,  15°  B. 

pressure.  The  apparatus  should  be  carefully  tested  for  leakage, 
as  well  as  all  connections  leading  thereto.  Simple  tests  can  be 
made  as,  for  example :  If  after  the  cock  "g"  is  closed,  the  bottle 
"f"  is  placed  on  top  of  the  frame  for  a  short  time  and  again 
brought  to  the  zero  mark,,  and  the  level  of  the  water  in  "a"  is 
above  the  zero  mark,  a  leak  is  indicated.  Before  taking  a  final 
sample  for  analysis,  the  burette  "a"  should  be  filled  with  gas  and 
emptied  once  or  twice,  to  make  sure  that  all  the  apparatus  is  filled 


10 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


with  the  new  gas.  The  cock  "g"  is  then  closed  and  the  cock  "i" 
is  opened  and  the  gas  driven  over  into  "b"  by  raising  the  bottle 
"f."  The  gas  is  drawn  back  into  "a'J  by  lowering  "f"  and  when 
the  solution  in  "b"  has  reached  f*he  mark  in  the  capillary  tube,  the 
cock  "i"  is  closed  and  a  reading  is  taken  on  the  burette,  the  level 
of  the  water  in  the  bottle  "f"  being  brought  to  the  same  level  as 
the  water  in  "a."  The  operation  is  repeated  until  a  constant  read- 
ing is  obtained,  the  number  of  cubic  centimeters,  absorbed  as 
shown  by  the  reading,  being  the  percentage  of  CO2  in  the  flue 
gases.  The  gas  is  then  driven  over  into  the  pipette  "c"  and  a  sim- 
ilar operation  is  carried  out.  The  difference  between  the  resulting 

Table  3.— CO2  AND  FUEL  LOSSES.a 


Percent  CO2. 

Percent  Excess  Air 

B.  t.  u.  Loss. 

Percent  Fuel  Loss. 

15.6 

0 

0 

.0 

16 

5 

75 

.4 

14 

10 

186 

1. 

13 

18 

317 

1.7 

12 

28 

447 

2.4 

11 

40 

633 

3.4 

10 

54 

856 

4.6 

9 

70 

1118 

6. 

8 

93 

1435 

7.S 

7 

120 

1900 

10.2 

6 

152 

2460 

13.2 

5 

198 

3205 

17.2 

4 

273 

4380 

23.5 

3 

396 

6340 

34. 

2 

635 

10150 

54.5 

1 

reading  and  the  first  reading  gives  the  percentage  of  oxygen  in  the 
flue  gases.  The  next  operation  is  to  drive  the  gas  into  the  pipette 
"d."  the  gas  being  given  a  final  wash  in  "e,"  and  then  passed  into 
the  pipette  "c"  to  neutralize  any  hydrochloric  acid  fumes  which 
may  have  been  given  off  by  the  cuprous  chloride  solution,  which, 
especially  if  it  be  old,  may  give  off  such  fumes,  thus  increasing 
the  volume  of  the  gases  and  making  the  reading  on  the  burette 
less  than  the  true  amount.  The  process  must  be  carried  out  in 
the  order  named,  as  the  pyrogallol  solution  will  also  absorb  car- 
bon dioxide,  while  the  cuprous  chloride  solution  will  also  absorb 
oxygen.  As  the  pressure  of  the  gases  in  the  flue  is  less  than  the 
atmospheric  pressure,  they  will  not  of  themselves  flow  through 


a.    Weymouth,  Trans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  30,  p.  803. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FUEL  OIL  COMBUSTION 


11 


the  pipe  connecting  the  flue  to  the  apparatus.  The  gas  may  be 
drawn  into  the  pipe  in  the  way  already  described  for  filling  the 
apparatus,  but  this  is  a  tedious  method.  For  rapid  work  a  rubber 
bulb  aspirator  connected  to  the  air  outlet  of  the  cock  "g"  will 
enable  a  new  supply  of  gas  to  be  drawn  into  the  pipe,  the  apparatus 


FIG.   2. — Orsat   apparatus  for  testing   flue   gases 


then  being  filled  as  already  described.  Another  form  of  aspirator 
draws  the  gas  from  the  flue  in  a  constant  stream,  thus  insuring 
a  fresh  supply  for  each  sample.  The  analysis  made  by  the  Orsat 
apparatus  is  volumetric.  If  the  analysis  by  weight  is  required  it 
can  be  found  from  the  volumetric  analysis  as  follows:  Multiply 
the  percentages  by  volume  by  either  the  densities  or  the  molecular 


12 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


weight  of  each  gas,  and  divide  the  products  by  the  sum  of  all  the 
products;  the  quotients  will  be  the  percentages  by  weight.  For 
most  work  sufficient  accuracy  is  secured  by  using  the  even  values 
of  the  molecular  weights.  The  even  values  of  the  molecular 
weights  are : 


Carbon  Dioxide  (COa) .  . 
Carbon  Monoxide  (CO) 

Oxygen  (O) 

Nitrogen  (N) 


44 

28 
32 

28 


A  typical  flue  gas  analysis  is  as  follows  :  Carbon  dioxide,  12.2 ; 
carbon  monoxide,  0.4;  oxygen,  6.9;  nitrogen,  80.5;  total,  100.0. 


FIG.  3. — Dense  smoke  from  burning  oil  tanks 

Inasmuch  as  perfect  combustion  of  coal  will  give  a  higher 
CO,  reading  than  perfect  combustion  of  oil,  a  possible  error  may 
arise  among  engineers  who  have  been  familiar  with  coal  burning 
in  interpreting  the  CO2  content  in  flue  gas  when  burning  fuel  oil. 
The  possibility  of  this  error  may  be  demonstrated  by  the  following 
example :  Assume  a  sample  of  coal  having  the  following  ultimate 
analysis :  Carbon,  73  percent ;  hydrogen,  4  percent ;  oxygen,  8 
percent,  and  the  residue  ash.  In  each  pound  of  coal  it  will 
be  necessary  to  supply  for  complete  combustion  of  the  carbon 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FUEL  OIL  COMBUSTION        13 

0.73  X  2%  =  1.95  pounds  of  oxygen.  The  oxygen  required  for 
the  complete  combustion  of  the  hydrogen  will  be  0.04  X  8  =  0.32 
pounds.  The  total  oxygen  required,  therefore,  will  be  1.95  -f-  0.32 
=  227  pounds.  The  coal  itself,  however,  contains  0.08  pounds 
of  occluded  oxygen.  Subtracting  this  amount  from  the  total  oxy- 
gen required  leaves  2.19  pounds  of  oxygen,  which  must  be  fur- 
nished by  the  air.  The  amount  of  air  necessary  to  supply  the  re- 

2.19 
quired  oxygen  is =  9.53  pounds  and  this  amount  of  air  will 

0.23 

contain  7.34  pounds  of  nitrogen.  The  amount  of  CO2  in  the  flue 
gas  which  will  be  produced  by  the  0.73  pounds  of  carbon  in  one 
pound  of  coal  is  0.73  X  3%  =  2.68  pounds.  Water  vapor  to  the 
amount  of  0.36  pounds  will  be  formed  by  the  combustion  of  the 
hydrogen,  but  the  water  vapor  before  reaching  the  Orsat  appara- 
tus will  condense,  and,  therefore,  will  not  appear  in  the  analysis. 
Hence,  flue  gas  will  contain  2.68  pounds  of  CO2  and  7.34  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  totalling  10.02  pounds  of  gas  for  each  pound  of  coal. 

2.68 

This  will  give  by  weight X  100  =  26.7  per  cent  CO9  and 

10.02 
7.34 

-  X  100  =  73.3  per  cent  of  nitrogen.    The  relative  volumes 
10.02 

26.7  73.3 

of  COo  and  nitrogen  will  be  —    -  =  1.21  for  CO2  and  -    -  =  5.24 

22  14 

for  N,  since  the  ratio  of  the  weights  of  N  to  CO2  is  14  to  22.    By 

1.21 

volume  the  percentages  will  be—    —=18.8  per  cent  CCX  and 

6.45 

5.24 
-  =  81.2  per  cent  N.     Follow  the  same  calculation  through 

6,45 

with  an  average  sample  of  fuel  oil.  This  may  be  assumed  to  con- 
tain 85  per  cent  carbon,  12  per  cent  hydrogen  and  3  per  cent  oxy- 
gen. The  oxygen  required  by  the  carbon  of  the  fuel  oil  will  be 
2.27  pounds  and  combustion  will  produce  3.12  pounds  of  CO,. 
The  oxygen  required  for  the  combustion  of  the  hydrogen  will  be 
0.96  pounds  of  oxygen  per  pound  of  oil  burned  and  water  vapor 
will  be  produced  to  the  amount  of  1.08  pounds.  The  net  oxygen 
requirements  will,  therefore,  be  2.27 +'0.96  — 0.03  =  3.20  Ibs. 
To  provide  this  amount  of  oxygen  13.91  pounds  of  air  must  be 


14  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

introduced  and  this  amount  of  air  carries  with  it  10.71  pounds  of 
nitrogen.  As  in  the  combustion  of  coal  the  water  vapor  will  be 
condensed  and  the  flue  gas  per  pound  of  oil  will  be  3.12  -|-  10.71 
=  13.83  pounds,  which  by  weight  will  have  a  composition  of  22.5 
per  cent  CO,  and  77.5  per  cent  nitrogen.  The  percentage  of  CO2 
by  volume  will  be  15.6  and  the  percentage  of  N  will  be  84.4. 

It  is,  of  course,  understood  that  these  calculations  are  based 
on  ideal  theoretical  conditions  where  there  is  complete  combus- 
tion without  excess  air.  In  the  samples  of  coal  and  oil  under 
discussion,  the  coal  might  theoretically  give  an  18.8  per  cent  CO2 
reading  whereas  the  oil  could  not  possibly  show  a  higher  percent- 
age than  15.6  because  the  oil  has  a  greater  amount  of  hydrogen 
than  has  the  coal  and  hydrogen  requires  oxygen  for  its  combustion 
and  the  air  supplying  the  oxygen  brings  with  it  nitrogen  which 
appears  in  the  flue  gas.  The  water  vapor  that  the  hydrogen  pro- 
duces does  not  appear  in  the  flue  gas  analysis  and  the  hydrogen, 
of  course,  does  not  produce  CO2.  It  is  easily  seen  that  the  higher 
the  hydrogen  content  of  the  fuel,  the  lower  will  be  the  theoretical 
CO2  percentage  in  the  flue  gas. 

A  factor  which  is  rarely  considered  in  efficiency  tests  of  fuel 
oil  is  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  time  of  the  test.  With 
a  high  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  some  of  the  oxygen  in  a  given 
space  is  displaced  by  water  vapor,  and,  therefore,  for  complete 
combustion  of  the  fuel  oil  an  excess  in  the  volume  of  air  will  be 
required  with  a  consequent  loss  of  heat  in  the  stack.  In  tests 
conducted  by  the  U.  S.  Naval  Liquid  Fuel  Board,  the  decision  was 
arrived  at  that  when  operating  a  boiler  at  a  given  capacity  the 
efficiency  varies  inversely  with  the  humidity. 

Table  4  gives  the  physical  changes  in  air  brought  about  by 
changes  in  temperature.  Relative  humidity  is  expressed  as  a 
percentage  and  is  the  ratio  of  the  quantity  of  water  vapor  which 
is  present  in  the  air  at  any  given  temperature  and  pressure  to  the 
quantity  of  vapor  necessary  to  saturate  completely  the  space 
occupied  by  the  air. 

Since  in  the  charcoal  fire  at  the  temperature  of  the  union  of 
the  carbon  with  oxygen  the  fuel  is  solid,  it  can  present  a  large 
surface  upon  which  the  oxygen  can  act,  and  an  atom  of  carbon 
cannot  break  away  from  the  fuel  bed  without  being  first  united 
with  at  least  one  atom  of  oxygen  and  forming  CO.  In  burning 
fuel  oil  the  fuel  is  already  on  the  way  to  the  chimney  before  it 


PRINCIPLES  OF  FUEL  OIL  COMBUSTION 


15 


is  even  partially  burned  and  is  carried  along  by  the  current  of 
gases.  Therefore,  before  being  cooled,  plenty  of  time  must  elapse 
or  otherwise  it  will  form  soot.  If  the  oil  is  not  properly  atomized 
at  the  burner  the  separate  oil  particles  are  too  large  and  at  the 
same  time  are  not  surrounded  with  a  sufficient  number  of  par- 
ticles of  air  to  insure  their  complete  combustion.  The  heavier 
drops  of  oil  progressively  distill  and  particles  of  free  carbon  or 
soot  are  deposited.  The  lighter  oils  and  gases  resulting  from  this 
distillation  consist,  like  the  gases  from  coal,  principally  of  carbon 
and  hydrogen.  In  an  atmosphere  deficient  in  oxygen  the  hydro- 
Table  4.— PHYSICAL  CHANGES  IN  AIR  DUE  TO  TEMPERATURE 


Weight  of  Water  in 

Temperature 
of  the  Air. 

Weight  of  100,000 
Cubic  Feet  of  Pure  Air. 

100,000  Cubic  Feet  of 
Saturated  Aqueous 

Quantity  of  Water  per 
100,000  Cubic  Feet 

Vapor. 

of  Air. 

Deg.  F. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Gallons. 

0 

8,635.4 

6.9 

0.823 

10 

8,459.4 

11.1 

1.329 

20 

8,275.5 

17.6 

2.114 

30 

8,106.3 

27.6 

3.312 

40 

7,943.9 

40.7 

4.878 

50 

7,787.9 

58.2 

6.979 

60 

7,637.9 

82.1 

9.843 

70 

7,493.5 

114.0 

13.686 

80 

7,354.6 

156.2 

18.776 

90 

7,220.6 

211.3 

25.439 

100 

7,091.4 

282.4 

34.058 

gen  burns  first  and  the  carbon  is  deposited.  Naturally  when  we 
consider  that  oil  is  a  liquid  originally  and  not  a  dense  substance 
like  coal,  and  particularly  that  it  is  blown  into  the  furnace  by 
compressed  air  or  steam,  the  likelihood  of  its  incomplete  com- 
bustion with  consequent  deposition  of  soot  is  much  less  than  is 
the  case  with  coal. 

An  essential  for  the  successful  burning  of  fuel  oil  is  the  ex- 
posure of  the  largest  possible  surface  to  the  action  of  the  oxygen 
of  the  air.  Bulk  oil  presents  comparatively  a  small  surface.  If 
a  tank  of  fuel  oil  is  ignited,  the  air  is  able  to  reach  only  the  upper- 
most surface  of  the  liquid  and  combustion  is  relatively  slow  and 
incomplete,  being  accompanied  by  dense  clouds  of  black  smoke 
consisting  of  unburned  carbon.  (See  fig.  3.)  When  fuel  oil  is 
broken  up  into  fine  drops  the  surface  exposed  is  the  sum  of  the 


16  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

surface  of  all  the  drops.  The  smaller  the  drops  the  more  nearly 
spherical  they  are.  Drops  of  oil  one  one-thousandth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter  are  known  to  assume  the  spherical  form  with  a 
rigidity  comparable  to  that  of  a  steel  ball  one  inch  in  diameter. 
The  drop  of  oil  assumes  this  spherical  form  through  "surface 
tension,"  which  is  a  very  peculiar  property  belonging  to  both 
solids  and  liquids.  Cohesion  of  the  molecules  appears  to  be 
greater  at  the  surface  than  within  the  body  of  the  globule.  Co- 
hesion may  be  explained  as  an  attractive  force  between  particles 
of  the  same  material.  It  appears  as  though  a  thin  envelope  sur- 
rounds and  holds  together  the  particles  composing  the  drop  of  oil. 
The  work  necessarily  performed  by  the  atomizing  agent  is 
simply  the  work  of  stretching  the  surface  of  the  drops.  It  will 
easily  be  seen,  therefore,  that  to  properly  atomize  fuel  oil  to  such 
a  form  that  it  can  be  burned  efficiently  under  boilers  is  purely 
mechanical  rather  than  a  chemical  problem. 


CHAPTER  II 

PHYSICAL  AND  CHEMICAL  PROPERTIES  OF 

FUEL  OIL 

Crude  petroleum  in  its  raw  or  unrefined  state  varies  con- 
siderably in  character  and  appearance,  according  to  the  locality 
from  which  it  is  obtained.  Petroleum  is  a  very  complex  mixture 
of  organic  compounds  which  are  chiefly  hydrocarbons,  that  is, 
compounds  composed  of  hydrogen  and  carbon.  Although  the 
hydrocarbons  are  the  chief  constituents  of  petroleum  it  also  con- 
tains in  small  amounts,  sulphur,  oxygen,  and  nitrogen.  While 
petroleums  from  various  sections  of  the  country  differ  consider- 
ably in  character,  they  may,  however,  be  divided  into  three  main 
classes : 

1 .  Those  in  which  the  residue  is  predominantly  paraffin  wax. 

2.  Those  in  which  the  residue  is  predominantly  asphalt. 

3.  Those  in  which  the  residue  is  a  compound  of  paraffin  wax 

and  asphalt. 

The  paraffin  petroleums  of  the  United  States  occur  chiefly  in  the 
eastern  part  of  the  country.  The  asphaltic  petroleums  are  found 
in  California  and  in  the  Gulf  region  and  the  compound  paraffin- 
asphalt  base  petroleum  is  found  generally  in  the  mid-continent 
field. 

It  is  possible  to  burn  crude  petroleum  itself  as  a  fuel  and 
nearly  one-fifth  of  the  domestic  consumption  is  thus  utilized,  but 
while  the  evaporative  efficiency  of  crude  and  refined  oil  is  prac- 
tically the  same  no  matter  from  what  locality  the  oil  may  come, 
the  danger  of  using  crude  oil  is  much  greater  than  that  of  using 
fuel  oil.  The  most  of  the  petroleum  produced  in  the  United  States 
is  refined  into  a  series  of  products.  The  four  main  products  ob- 
tained through  the  distillation  of  petroleum  in  refineries  are  gaso- 
line, kerosene,  fuel  oil,  and  lubricating  oil.  There  are,  of  course, 
a  large  number  of  by-products  obtained  in  the  process  of  refining 
of  which  benzine,  vaseline,  paraffin,  road  oil,  asphalt  and  petro- 
leum coke  are  well-known  examples.  Table  5  gives  analyses  of 
typical  American  oils  used  as  fuels. 

17 


18 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


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2 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  19 

When  crude  petroleum  is  distilled,  the  most  volatile  products 
are  given  off  first.  Gasoline,  as  the  term  is  commercially  used, 
covers  those  products  which  are  more  volatile  than  kerosene  and 
includes,  therefore,  some  benzine  and  naphtha.  The  next  most 
volatile  constituent  of  crude  petroleum  is  kerosene,  which  is  the 
common  type  of  illuminating  oil  and  is  heavier  than  gasoline,  but 
lighter  than  distillate  which  is  taken  out  immediately  after  kero- 
sene and  can  be  considered  a  high  grade  special  fuel  oil.  Under 
the  heading  fuel  oil  are  included  all  of  those  distillates  which  are 
heavier  than  illuminating  oils  and  lighter  than  lubricating  oils. 
Fuel  oil,  therefore,  includes  gas  oil.  Gas  oil  is  nothing  more  than 
a  high-grade  fuel  oil  which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gas. 
The  term  fuel  oil  also  includes  the  residuum  left  after  gasoline 
and  kerosene  only  have  been  extracted  from  petroleum. 

Inasmuch  as  the  crude  oils  from  different  sections  of  the 
country  vary  widely  in  chemical  composition,  it  is  only  natural  to 
expect  that  the  fuel  oils  obtained  as  a  result  of  the  distillation  of 
these  crude  petroleums  will  also  vary  widely  in  ultimate  analyses. 

In  purchasing  fuel  oil  it  is  sufficient  to  specify  the  desired 
viscosity,  specific  gravity,  flash  point,  calorific  value,  water  con- 
tent, and  sulphur  content.  The  specifications  of  the  U.  S.  Navy 
for  fuel  oil  at  Atlantic  and  Gulf  ports  are : 

SPECIFICATIONS 

"(a)  Fuel  oil  shall  be  a  hydrocarbon  oil  free  from  grit, 
acid  and  fibrous  or  other  foreign  matter  likely  to  clog  or  injure 
the  burners  or  valves.  If  required  by  the  Navy  Department  it 
shall  be  strained  by  being  drawn  through  filters  of  wire  gauge 
having  16  meshes  to  the  inch.  The  clearance  through  the  strainer 
shall  be  at  least  twice  the  area  of  the  suction  pipe  and  strainers 
shall  be  in  duplicate. 

(b)  The  unit  of  quantity  to  be  the  barrel  of  42  gallons  of 
231   cu.  in.  at  a  standard  temperature  of  60°  F.     For  every  de- 
crease   or    increase    of    temperature    of    10°  F.    (or   proportion 
thereof)   from  the  standard,  0.4  of  1  per  cent  (or  prorated  per- 
centage) shall  be  added  or  deducted  from  the  measured  or  gauged 
quantity  for  correction. 

(c)  The  flash  point  shall  not  be  lower  than  150°  F.  as  a 
minimum    (Abel   or    Pennsky-Marten's   closed    cup)    or    175°  F. 
Tagliabue  open  cup.     In  case  of  oils  having  a  viscosity  greater 


20  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

than  8  Engler  at  150°  F.  the  flash  point  (closed  cup)  shall  not  be 
below  the  temperature  at  which  the  oil  has  a  viscosity  of  8  Engler. 

(d)  Viscosity  shall  not  be  greater  than  40  Engler  at  70°  F. 

(e)  Water  and  sediment  not  over  1  per  cent.    If  in  excess 
of  1  per  cent  the  excess  to  be  subtracted  from  the  volume  or  the 
oil  may  be  rejected. 

(f)  Sulphur  not  over  1.5  per  cent. 

NOTE: — If  the  Engler  viscometer  is  not  available,  the  Say- 
bolt  standard  universal  viscosimeter  may  be  used.  Equivalent 
viscosities : 

88  Engler 300  seconds  Saybolt 

40  Engler 1,500  seconds  Saybolt" 

VISCOSITY  OF  FUEL  OIL 

The  viscosity  of  an  oil  is  inversely  proportional  to  its  fluidity, 
and  is  a  measure  of  the  internal  friction  in  the  oil  itself,  that  is. 
of  its  resistance  to  free  flowing.  Inasmuch  as  there  are  a  number 
of  different  instruments  for  the  purpose  of  measuring  viscosity, 
and  since  there  is  no  recognized  standard  instrument  or  method 
of  measuring  it,  the  term  "viscosity"  means  nothing  unless  there 
are  also  stated  the  name  of  the  instrument  used,  the  temperature 
at  which  the  viscosity  was  determined,  and  the  amount  of  oil 
tested.  The  viscosity  of  an  oil  is  generally  stated  as  the  time 
in  seconds  required  for  a  given  quantity  of  the  oil  in  question 
to  flow  through  a  small  orifice  at  the  stated  temperature.  It  can 
be  stated  as  the  ratio  of  the  time  of  flow  of  the  oil  being  tested 
to  the  time  of  flow  of  water  or  some  oil  chosen  as  a  standard  at 
a  stated  temperature.  Common  types  of  viscosimeters  or  instru- 
ments for  measuring  the  viscosity  of  oil  are  the  Engler,  Saybolt 
and  Tagliabue.  In  stating  viscosity  the  name  of  the  instrument 
used  should  always  be  given.  Figure  4  shows  a  Saybolt  visco- 
simeter. The  tentative  test  for  the  viscosity  of  lubricants  adopted 
by  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials11  is  as  follows: 

1.  Viscosity  shall  be  determined  by  means  of  the  Saybolt 
Standard  Universal  Viscosimeter. 

2.  (a)     The   Saybolt   Standard  Universal   Viscosimeter  is 
made  entirely  of  metal.    The  standard  oil  tube  J  is  fitted  at  the 
top  with  an  overflow  cup  E  and  the  tube  is  surrounded  by  a  bath 
L.    At  the  bottom  of  the  standard  oil  tube  is  a  small  outlet  tube 
through  which  the  oil  to  be  tested  flows  into  a  receiving  flask  R, 

a.      Reprinted   by   permission. 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL 


21 


FIG.  4. — Saybolt  Standard  Universal  Viscosimeter. 


22 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


whose  capacity  to  a  mark  on  its  neck  is  60  (±0.15)  c.c.  The 
lower  end  of  the  outlet  tube  is  enclosed  by  a  larger  tube,  which 
when  stoppered  by  a  cork,  N,  acts  as  a  closed  air  chamber  and 
prevents  the  flow  of  oil  through  the  outlet  tube  until  the  cork  is 
removed  and  the  test  started.  A  looped  string  is  attached  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  cork  as  an  aid  to  its  rapid  removal.  The  bath  is 
provided  with  two  stirring  paddles,  K,  and  operated  by  two  turn- 
table handles  F.  The  temperatures  in  the  standard  oil  tube  and 
in  the  bath  are  shown  by  thermometers,  A  and  B.  The  bath  may 
be  heated  by  a  gas  ring  burner  P,  steam  U-tube  H,  or  electric 
heater,  C.  The  standard  oil  tube  is  cleaned  by  means  of  a  tube 
cleaning  plunger  V,  and  all  oil  entering  the  standard  oil  tube  shall 
be  strained  through  a  30-mesh  brass  wire  strainer  Q.  A  stop 
watch  is  used  for  taking  the  time  of  flow  of  the  oil  and  a  pipette, 
fitted  with  a  rubber  suction  bulb,  is  used  for  draining  the  over- 
flow cup  of  the  standard  oil  tube. 

(b)  The  standard  oil  tube  should  be  standardized  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Standards,  Washington,  and  shall  con- 
form to  the  following  dimensions: 


Minimum 

Normal 

Maximum 

Dimensions. 

CM. 

CM. 

CM. 

Inside  Diameter  of  outlet  tube   

0.  1750 

0.  1765 

0.  1780 

Length  of  outlet  tube   

1.215 

1.225 

1.235 

Height  of  overflow  rim  above  bottom  of  outlet 

tube  

12.40 

12.50 

12.60 

Diameter  of  container  of  standard  oil  tube.  .  . 

2.955 

2.975 

2.995 

Outer  diameter  of  outlet  tube  at  lower  end  — 

0.28 

0.30 

0.32 

3.  Viscosity  shall  be  determined  at  100°  F.  (37°.8C.). 
130°  F.  (54°.4  C.),  or  210°  F.  (98°.9  C).  The  bath  shall  be  held 
constant  within  0°.25  F.  (0.14°  C.)  at  such  a  temperature  as  will 
maintain  the  desired  temperature  in  the  standard  oil  tube.  For 
viscosity  determinations  at  100  and  130°  F.,  oil  or  water  may  be 
used  as  the  bath  liquid.  For  viscosity  determinations  at  210°  F., 
oil  shall  be  used  as  the  bath  liquid.  The  oil  for  the  bath  liquid 
should  be  a  pale  engine  oil  of  at  least  350°  F.  flash  point  (open 
cup).  Viscosity  determinations  shall  be  made  in  a  room  free 
from  draughts,  and  from  rapid  changes  in  temperature.  All  oil 
introduced  into  the  standard  oil  tube,  either  for  cleaning  or  for 
test,  shall  first  be  passed  through  the  strainer.  To  make  the  test. 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  23 

heat  the  oil  to  the  necessary  temperature  and  clean  out  the  stand- 
ard oil  tube  with  the  plunger,  using  some  of  the  oil  to  be  tested. 
Place  the  cork  stopper  into  the  lower  end  of  the  air  chamber  at 
the  bottom  of  the  standard  oil  tube.  The  stopper  should  be  suffi- 
ciently inserted  to  prevent  the  escape  of  air,  but  should  not  touch 
the  small  outlet  tube  of  the  standard  oil  tube.  Heat  the  oil  to  be 
tested,  outside  the  viscosimeter,  to  slightly  below  the  temperature 
at  which  the  viscosity  is  to  be  determined  and  pour  it  into  the 
standard  oil  tube  until  it  ceases  to  overflow  into  the  overflow  cup. 
By  means  of  the  oil  tube  thermometer  keep  the  oil  in  the  standard 
oil  tube  well  stirred  and  also  stir  well  the  oil  in  the  bath.  It  is 
extremely  important  that  the  temperature  of  the  oil  in  the  oil 
bath  be  maintained  constant  during  the  entire  time  consumed  in 
making  the  test.  When  the  temperature  of  the  oil  in  the  bath  and 
in  the  standard  oil  tube  are  constant  and  the  oil  in  the  standard 
oil  tube  is  at  the  desired  temperature,  withdraw  the  oil  tube  ther- 
mometer ;  quickly  remove  the  surplus  oil  from  the  overflow  cup 
by  means  of  a  pipette  so  that  the  level  of  the  oil  in  the  overflow 
cup  is  below  the  level  of  the  oil  in  the  tube  proper ;  place  the 
60  c.c.  flask  in  position  so  that  the  oil  from  the  outlet  tube  will 
flow  into  the  flask  without  making  bubbles ;  snap  the  cork  from 
its  position,  and  at  the  same  instant  start  the  stop  watch.  Stir 
the  liquid  on  the  bath  during  the  run  and  carefully  maintain  it  at 
the  previously  determined  proper  temperature.  Stop  the  watch 
when  the  bottom  of  the  meniscus  of  the  oil  reaches  the  mark  on 
the  neck  of  the  receiving  flask.  The  time  in  seconds  for  the 
60  c.c.  of  oil  is  the  Saybolt  viscosity  of  the  oil  at  the  temperature 
at  which  the  test  was  made. 

Other  viscosimeters  in  use  are  the  Engler,  Tagliabue,  Scott, 
Redwood,  Penn.  Ry.  pipet,  McMichael,  Lamansky-Nobel,  Ost- 
wald,  Martens,  Stormer,  Ubbelohde,  Lepenau,  Kuenkler,  Albrecht, 
Arvine,  Barbey,  Cockrell,  Doolittle,  Gibbs,  Mason,  Napier,  Nas- 
myth,  Phillips,  Reischauer,  Magruder.  The  Engler  viscosimeter 
(See  fig.  5)  is  used  most  extensively  in  Germany  and  its  dimen- 
sions are  as  follows: 

Inside  diameter  of  the  inside  vessel  for  oil.  . .  .106  mm. 

Height  of  vessel  below  overflow 25  mm. 

Length  of  the  oil  jet 20  mm. 

Inside  diameter  of  the  oil  jet  upper  end 2.9  mm. 

Inside  diameter  of  the  oil  jet  lower  end 2.8  mm. 


24  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

Length  of  jet  projecting  from  lower  part  of 

outer  vessel 3.0  mm. 

Width  of  jet .4.5  mm. 


FIG.   5. — The  Engler  viscosimeter. 


The  quotient  of  the  time  of  outflow  of  200  c.c.  of  oil  divided 
by  the  time  of  outflow  of  200  c.c.  of  water  is  taken  as  a  measure 
of  the  viscosity  or  is  the  so-called  Engler  degree.  The  Redwood 
viscosimeter  is  used  extensively  in  England. 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL 


25 


Table   6.— EQUIVALENT   READINGS   FOR   THE   SAYBOLT,    RED- 
WOOD AND  ENGLER  VISCOMETERS. 


Saybolt 
Time. 

Redwood 
Time. 

Engler 
Number. 

Saybolt 
Time. 

Redwood 
Time. 

Engler 
Number. 

28.0 

26.6 

1.00 

200 

168 

5.34 

29.0 

27.4 

1.03 

300 

252 

8.01 

30.0 

28.3 

1.06 

400 

336 

10.7 

3.1.0 

29.2 

1.08 

500 

420 

13.4 

32.0 

30.1 

1.11 

600 

504 

16.0 

33.0 

31.0 

1.14 

700 

588 

18.7 

34.0 

31.9 

1.16 

800 

672 

21.4 

35.0 

32.8 

1.19 

900 

756 

24.0 

36.0 

32.7 

1.22 

1000 

840 

26.7 

37.0 

34.6 

1.25 

1100 

925 

28.4 

38.0 

35.4 

1.27 

1200 

1010 

32.0 

39.0 

36.3 

1.30 

1300 

1090 

34.7 

40.0 

37.1 

1.32 

1400 

1180 

37.4 

41.0 

37.9 

1.35 

1500 

1260 

40.0 

42.0 

38.8 

1.37 

1600 

1340 

42.7 

43.0 

39.6 

1.40 

1700 

1430 

45.4 

44.0 

40.4 

1.  42 

1800 

1510 

48.1 

45.0 

41.2 

1.45 

1900 

1600 

50.7 

46.0 

42.0 

1.47 

2000 

1680 

53.4 

47.0 

42.8 

1.50 

48.0 

43.6 

1.52 

At  and  above  200  Saybolt,  the  Red- 

49.0 

44.4 

1.55 

wood  time  is  obtained  by  multiplying 

50.0 

45.2 

1.57 

by  0.84,  and  the  Engler  number  by 

55.0 

49.2 

1.69 

multiplying  by  0.0267,  thus: 

60.0 

53.2 

1.81 

Redwood  time    =  0.84  X  Saybolt 

65.0 

57.2 

1.93 

time.     Engler  number   =  0.0267  X 

70.0 
75.0 

61.2 
65.1 

2.05 
2.17 

Saybolt  time.     For  Engler  numbers 
6.0  and  over,  Redwood  time  =  31.3  X 

80.0 

69.0 

2.29 

Engler  numbers. 

85.0 

72.9 

2.41 

90.0 

76.8 

2.54 

95.0 

80.8 

2.67 

100. 

•85.0 

2.80 

110. 

93.5 

3.04 

120. 

101. 

3.29 

130. 

109. 

3.54 

140. 

118. 

3.80 

150. 

126. 

3.05 

160. 

134. 

4.31 

170. 

143. 

4.56 

•     •  —      .    • 

180. 

151. 

4.82 

190. 

160. 

5.08 

200. 

168. 

5.34 

Table  6  gives  equivalents  of  Saybolt  times,  Redwood  times, 
and  Engler  numbers.6  Intermediate  values  can  be  obtained  by 
interpolation.  Fig.  6  is  a  charta  for  the  quick  determination  of 
these  equivalents. 


a.     Compiled  by  Carl  D.  Miller,  Ph.D.,  Associate  Editor  of  Oil  News. 


26 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


Knowledge  of  the  viscosity  of  fuel  oil  is  valuable  for  de- 
termining the  ease  with  which  the  oil  can  be  pumped  through 
pipe  lines  with  or  without  heat.  Although  the  viscosity  of  fuel 
oil  increases  with  the  density,  tests  have  shown  that  oils  of  the 
same  specific  gravity  from  different  localities  often  differ  quite 
widely  in  viscosity. 

Fuel  oil,  as  regards  viscosity,  may  be  divided  into  two  general 
classes,  namely:  Class  1.  Asphaltic  base  crudes,  residuums,  or 


50  

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FIG.  6. — Chart  for  quick  determination  of  Saybolt  equivalents. 

other  oils  which  require  heating  facilities  to  reduce  the  viscosity 
in  order  that  the  oil  may  be  handled  by  the  storage  and  burning 
equipment.  Class  2.  Oils  of  a  sufficiently  low  viscosity  to  make 
heating  equipment  unnecessary.  In  general,  an  oil  in  Class  1 
should  not  have  a  viscosity  above  2,000°  Engler  at  60°  F.  Oils  of 
a  higher  viscosity  than  this  can  be  used  at  plants  provided  with 
special  equipment.  It  is  imperative  that  oils  of  this  class  be  heated 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  27 

to  a  temperature  at  which  they  have  a  viscosity  of  12°  Engler  or 
lower  before  they  reach  the  burner,  in  order  to  obtain  proper 
atomization.  It  is  desirable  that  this  viscosity  be  obtained  at  a 
temperature  below  the  flash  point  of  the  oil,  in  order  to  minimize 
fire  hazards  and  to  insure  uniform  feed  to  the  burner.  For  an 
oil  of  Class  2,  12°  Engler  at  60°  F.  is  the  approximate  maximum 
viscosity  permissible. 

SPECIFIC   GRAVITY 

Fuel  oils  are  commonly  sold  and  described  as  of  a  certain 
specific  gravity  or  else  as  of  a  certain  degree  Baume.  Through- 
out the  oil-burner  industry  the  Baume  reading  is  generally  used. 
The  specific  gravity  of  fuel  oil  is  the  relation  by  weight  of  a  given 
volume  of  distilled  water  to  the  same  volume  of  fuel  oil  when 
both  are  weighed  at  a  temperature  of  60°  F.  The  specific  gravity 
of  fuel  oil  can  be  determined  by  the  hydrostatic  balance,  by 
hydrometers,  and  by  the  specific  gravity  bottle.  Throughout  the 
oil  industry  the  gravity  as  determined  by  the  hydrometer  is  uni- 
versally referred  to.  The  principle  of  operation  of  the  hydrom- 
eter is  based  on  the  law  that  a  solid  body  floating  in  a  liquid  will 
displace  a  quantity  of  the  liquid  equal  in  weight  to  the  floating 
body.  Hence  a  body  of  constant  weight  and  proportion  will  al- 
ways sink  to  the  same  extent  into  a  liquid  of  a  certain  density  and 
will  sink  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  as  the  density  decreases  or 
increases.  Because  when  a  liquid  expands  or  contracts  with  tem- 
perature, the  density  of  the  liquid  varies  accordingly,  therefore, 
when  the  hydrometer  is  constructed  the  scale  must  be  standard- 
ized for  a  certain  temperature.  As  it  is  not  always  convenient 
to  have  the  liquid  at  the  temperature  for  which  the  scale  of  the 
hydrometer  is  arranged,  it  is  often  necessary  to  apply  a  correc- 
tion for  temperature  variation. 

The  standard  hydrometer  used  in  the  oil  industry  was  evolved 
by  Baume.  Baume's  hydrometer  has  an  arbitrary  scale.  For 
liquids  lighter  than  water,  Baume  took  for  zero  the  point  on  the 
stem  to  which  the  hydrometer  sank  in  a  solution  of  10  parts  of 
salt  and  90  of  water.  For  the  point  10  in  the  scale  he  took  the 
level  to  which  the  hydrometer  sank  in  distilled  water.  The  space 
between  the  two  marks  he  divided  into  10  equal  parts  and  called 
each  space  a  decree  and  he  continued  the  scale  with  the  same  inter- 
vals between  the  marks.  The  proper  method  of  manipulating  a 
hydrometer  must  be  adhered  to  if  accurate  results  are  desired. 


28 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


The  following  instructions  are  in  line  with  those  given  by  the 
U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards. 


1 


FIG.  7. — In  reading  the  hydrometer  the  line  of  sight  should  first  strike  slightly 
below  the  plane  of  the  oil  surface  (Left).  The  eye  should  then  be  slowly  raised  unti'l 
the  line  of  sight  grazes  from  beneath  the  surface  of  the  oil  (Right). 

It  is  essential  that  before  it  is  used  the  hydrometer  shall  be  thor- 
oughly cleaned  and  dried.  The  liquids  to  be  tested  should  be 
contained  in  clear,  smooth,  glass  vessels  of  suitable  size  and  shape. 
Thorough  mixing  of  the  liquids  is  requisite,  before  the  hydrom- 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  29 

eter  test  is  made,  by  means  of  a  stirrer  that  reaches  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  so  that  the  liquid  will  be  uniform  in  density  and 
temperature  throughout.  A  perforated  disc  or  a  spiral  at  the 
end  of  a  sufficiently  long  rod  will  give  the  best  results  as  the  up 
and  down  motion  serves  to  disperse  layers  of  the  liquid  of  dif- 
ferent density.  The  temperature  of  the  surrounding  atmosphere 
should  be  taken  into  account  also  and  the  temperature  of  the 
liquid  being  tested  should  be  the  same  as  the  atmosphere,  as 
otherwise  its  temperature  will  be  changing  during  the  test,  thus 
causing  not  only  differences  in  density,  but  also  doubt  as  to  the 
actual  temperature.  The  temperature  of  the  hydrometer  itself 
should  also  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  liquids  being  tested.  When 
immersing  the  hydrometer  it  should  be  slowly  sunk  into  the  liquid 
slightly  beyond  the  point  where  it  floats  naturally  and  then  al- 
lowed to  float  freely.  Surface  tension  effects  on  hydrometer 
observation  are  a  consequence  of  the  downward  force  exerted  on 
the  stem  by  the  curved  surface  of  the  liquid  or  "meniscus"  which 
rises  on  the  stem  and  which  affects  the  depth  of  immersion  and 
consequent  scale  reading.  The  liquid  for  which  the  hydrometer 
is  intended  must  be  specified,  therefore,  because  a  hydrometer  will 
indicate  differently  in  two  liquids  having  the  same  density,  but 
different  surface  tensions.  Hydrometers  may  be  compared  with 
each  other  if  they  are  of  equivalent  dimensions.,  however,  even  if 
the  liquid  used  differs  in  surface  tension  from  the  specified  liquid, 
but  comparisons  of  dissimilar  instruments,  in  such  liquid,  must 
be  corrected  for  the  effect  of  surface  tension.  Spontaneous 
changes  in  surface  tension  occur  in  many  liquids,  due  to  the  for- 
mation of  surface  films  of  impurities,  which  may  come  from  the 
apparatus,  the  liquid,  or  the  air.  Errors  from  this  source  may  be 
avoided  by  the  purification  of  the  surface  by  overflowing  imme- 
diately before  making  the  observation.  Air  bubbles  must  be 
allowed  to  disappear  from  the  surface  of  the  liquid  before  taking 
the  scale  reading.  In  reading  the  hydrometer  scale,  the  eye  is 
brought  to  the  height  of  the  level  surface  of  the  liquid  and  the 
point  on  the  scale  read,  which  appears  to  coincide  with  the  level 
surface.  In  reading  the  thermometer  scale,  the  errors  of  parallax 
are  avoided  by  so  placing  the  eye  that  near  the 'end  of  the  mercury 
column  the  portions  on  either  side  of  the  stem  and  that  seen 
through  the  capillary  appear  to  lie  in  a  straight  line.  (See  fig.  7.) 
The  line  of  sight  is  then  normal  to  the  stem.  The  readings  of  the 


30  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

Baume  hydrometer  may  be  changed  to  those  of  absolute  specific 
gravity  as  determined  by  a  hydrostatic  balance  by  the  following 
formulas  which  hold  for  oil  and  for  all  other  liquids  lighter  than 
water. 

Specific   Gravity  =  — 

lou  —  J  >aume  reading 

Baume  —  •  —  1  30 

Specific  Gravity 

Example:    What.  is  Baume  of  oil  specific  gravity  .8092? 
--130  =  43°   Baume. 


Table  7  gives  the  Baume  scale  and  specific  gravity  equivalents. 
FLASH  POINT 

When  oils  are  heated  to  a  sufficiently  high  temperature,  vapors 
are  driven  off  which  are  inflammable  and  which  create  the  danger 
of  explosion.  The  temperature  at  which  the  oil  gives  off  suffi- 
cient vapor  to  form  a  momentary  flash  when  a  small  flame  is 
brought  near  the  surface  of  the  oil  is  called  the  "flash  point."  The 
flash  point  is  determined  by  heating  the  oil  in  a  suitable  device 
and  testing  with  a  lighted  taper  or  with  a  spark.  There  are  two 
types  of  flash  testers,  the  open-cup  and  the  closed-cup.  There  are 
many  makes  of  both  types  on  the  market.  The  most  common 
closed-cup  testers  are  the  New  York  State,  the  Pensky-Martens 
and  the  Abel,  and  the  most  common  open-cup  testers  are  the 
Tagliabue  and  the  Cleveland.  Figure  8  shows  the  Tagliabue 
closed-cup  testera  which  may  be  operated  with  either  gas  or  oil 
to  supply  the  ignition  flame.  The  method  of  testing  with  the 
standard  "Tag"  closed-cup  tester  as  outlined  by  the  American 
Society  for  Testing  Materials,  Tentative  Standards  1917,  pages 
445-6  are  as  follows  : 

The  test  must  be  performed  in  a  dim  light  so  as  to  see  the 
flash  plainly.  Surround  the  tester  on  three  sides  with  an  in- 
closure  to  keep  away  drafts.  A  shield  about  18  inches  square 
and  2  feet  high,  open  in  front,  is  satisfactory.  See  that  tester 
sets  firmly  and  level.  For  accuracy,  the  flash  point  thermometers 
which  are  especially  designed  for  the  instrument  should  be  used 


Bulletin    D    398,    C.    J.    Tagliabue    Manufacturing    Company. 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL 


31 


FIG.  8. — Tagliabue  closed-cup  tester.  A.  Thermometer,  indicating  the  temperature 
ot  the  oil.  B.  Thermometer,  indicating  the  temperature  of  the  water  bath.  C.  A  minia- 
ture oil  well  to  supply  the  test  flame  when  gas  is  not  available,  mounted  on  the  axle 
about  which  the  test-flame  burner  is  rotated,  which  axle  is  hollow  and  provided  with 
connection  on  one  end  for  gas  hose  and  provided  also  with  needle  valve  for  controlling 
gas  supply,  when  gas  is  available,  the  gas  passing  through  the  empty-oil  well.  D.  Gas 
or  oil  tip  for  test  flame.  E.  Cover  for  oil  cap,  provided  with  three  openings,  which  are 
in  turn  covered  by  a  movable  slide  operated  by  a  knurled  hand  knob,  which  also  oper- 
ates the  test  flame  burner  in  unison  with  the  movable  slide,  so  that  by  turning  this  knob, 
the  test  flame  is  lowered  into  the  middle  opening  in  the  cover,  at  the  same  time  that 
this  opening  is  uncovered  by  the  movement  of  the  slide.  F.  Oil  cup  (which  cannot  be 
seen  in  the  illustration)  of  standardized  size,  weight  and  shape,  fitting  into  the  top  of 
the  water  bath.  G.  Overflow  spout.  H.  Water  bath,  of  copper,  fitting  into  the  top  of 
the  body,  and  provided  with  an  overflow  spout  and  opening  in  its  top,  to  receive  the  oil 
cup  and  water  bath  thermometer.  J.  Body,  of  metal,  attached  to  substantial  cast  metal 
base  provided  with  three  feet.  K.  Alcohol  lamp  for  heating  the  water  bath.  L.  Gas  hose. 


32 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


Table  7.— BAUME  SCALE  AND  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY 
EQUIVALENTS.* 


Pounds 

Pounds 

Pounds 

°B. 

Specific 

in 

0  B. 

Specific 

in 

0  B 

Specific 

in 

Gravity 

Gallon 

Gravity 

Gallon 

Gravity 

Gallon 

10 

1.000 

8.33 

37 

0.8383 

6.99 

64 

0.7216 

6.01 

11 

0.9929 

8.27 

38 

0.8333 

6.94 

65 

0.7179 

5.98 

12 

0.9859 

8.21 

39 

0.8284 

6.90 

66 

0.7143 

5.96 

13 

0.9790 

8.15 

40 

0.8235 

6.86 

67 

0.7107 

5.92 

14 

0.9722 

8.10 

41 

0.8187 

6.82 

68 

0.7071 

5.89 

15 

0.  9655 

8.04 

42 

0.8140 

6.78 

69 

0.7035 

5.86 

16 

0.9589 

7.99 

43, 

0.8092 

6.74 

70 

0.7000 

5.83 

17 

0.9524 

7.93 

44 

0.8046 

6.70 

71 

0.6965 

5.80 

18 

0.9459 

7.88 

45 

0.8000 

6.66 

72 

0.6931 

5.77 

19 

0.9396 

7.83 

46 

0.7955 

6.62 

73 

0.6897 

5.74 

20 

0.9333 

7.77 

47 

0.7910 

6.59 

74 

0.6863 

5.71 

21 

0.9272 

7.72 

48 

0.7865 

6.55 

75 

0.6829 

5.69 

22 

0.9211 

7.67 

49 

0.7821 

6.51 

76 

0.6796 

5.66 

23 

0.9150 

7.62 

50 

0.7778 

6.48 

77 

0.6763 

5.63 

24 

0.9091 

7.57 

51 

0.7735 

6.44 

78 

0.6731 

5.60 

25 

0.9032 

7.52 

52 

0.7692 

6.40 

79 

0.6699 

5.58 

26 

0.8974 

7.47 

53 

0.7650 

6.37 

80 

0.6677 

5.55 

27 

0.8917 

7.42 

54 

0.7609 

6.33 

81 

0.6635 

5.52 

28 

0.8861 

.7.38 

55 

0.7568 

6.30 

82 

0.6604 

5.50 

29 

0.8805 

7.33 

56 

0.7527 

6.27 

83 

0.6573 

5.47 

30 

0.8750 

7.29 

57 

0.7487 

6.23 

84 

0.6542 

5.45 

31 

0.8696 

7.24 

58 

0.7447 

6.20 

85 

0.6512 

5.42 

32 

0.8642 

7.20 

59 

0.7407 

6.17 

86 

0.6482 

5.40 

33 

0.8589 

7.15 

60 

0.7368 

6.13 

87 

0.6452 

5.37 

34 

0.8537 

7.11 

61 

0.7330 

6.10 

88 

0.6422 

5.35 

35 

0.8485 

7.07 

62 

0.7292 

6.07 

89 

0.6393 

5.32 

36 

0.8434 

7.02 

63 

0.7254 

6.04 

90 

0.6364 

5.30 

as  the  position  of  the  bulb  of  the  thermometer  in  the  oil  cup  is 
essential.  Put  the  water-bath  thermometer  in  place.  Place  a 
receptacle  under  the  overflow  spout  to  catch  the  overflow.  Fill 
the  water  bath  with  water  at  such  a  temperature  that  when  test- 
ing is  started,  the  temperature  of  the  water  bath  will  be  at  least 
10°  C.  below  the  probable  flash  point  of  the  oil  to  be  tested.  Put 
the  oil  cup  in  place  in  the  water  bath.  Measure  50  c.c.  of  the  oil 
to  be  tested  in  a  pipet  or  a  graduate  and  place  in  oil  cup.  The 
temperature  of  the  oil  must  be  at  least  10°  C.  below  its  probable 
flash  point  when  testing  is  started.  Destroy  any  bubbles  on  the 
surface  of  the  oil.  Put  on  cover  with  flash  point  thermometers 
in  place  and  gas  tube  attached.  Light  pilot  light  on  cover  and 
adjust  flame  to  size  of  the  small  white  bead  on  cover.  Light 

a.  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Standards,  United  States  Standard  Tables  for  Petro- 
leum Oils,  Circular  57,  1916,  p.  57. 

Note. — Degrees  Baume  may  be  converted  to  specific  gravity  by  adding 
130  to  the  number  of  degrees  Baume  and  dividing  the  sum  by  140. 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  33 

and  place  the  heating  lamp,  filled  with  alcohol,  in  base  of  tester 
and  see  that  it  is  centrally  located.  Adjust  flame  of  alcohol  lamp 
so  that  temperature  of  oil  in  cup  rises  at  the  rate  of  about  1°  C. 
(1.8°  F.)  per  minute  or  not  faster  than  1°  C.  (1.8°  F.)  nor  slower 
than  0.9°  C.  (1.6°  F.)  per  minute.  Record  the  "time  of  applying 
the  heating  lamp,"  record  the  "temperature  of  the  water  bath  at 
start,"  record  the  "temperature  of  the  oil  sample  at  start."  When 
the  temperature  of  the  oil  reaches  about  5°  C.  below  the  probable 
flash  point  of  the  oil,  turn  the  knob  on  the  cover  so  as  to  introduce 
the  test  flame  into  the  cup  and  turn  it  promptly  back  again.  Do 
not  let  it  snap  back.  The  time  consumed  in  turning  the  knob 
down  and  back  should  be  about  one  full  second,  or  the  time  re- 
quired to  pronounce  distinctly  the  words  "one  thousand  and  one." 
Record  the  "time  of  making  the  first  introduction  of  the  test 
flame"  and  record  the  "temperature  of  the  oil  sample  at  time  of 
first  test."  Repeat  the  application  of  the  test  flame  at  every 
0.5°  C.  rise  in  temperature  of  the  oil  until  there  is  a  flash  of  the 
oil  within  the  cup.  Do  not  be  misled  by  an  enlargement  of  the 
test  flame  or  halo  around  it  when  entered  into  the  cup  or  by 
slight  flickering  of  the  flame;  the  true  flash  consumes  the  gas  in 
the  top  of  the  cup  and  causes  a  very  slight  puff.  Record  the 
"time  at  which  the  flash  point  is  reached,"  and  the  "flash  point." 
If  the  rise  in  temperature  of  the  oil  from  the  "time  of  making 
the  first  introduction  of  the  test  flame"  to  the  "time  at  which  the 
flash  point  is  reached"  was  faster  than  1.1°  C.  or  slower  than 
0.9°  C.  per  minute,  the  test  should  be  questioned  and  the  alcohol 
heating  lamp  adjusted  so  as  to  correct  the  rate  of  heating.  It  will 
be  found  that  the  wick  of  this  lamp  can  be  so  accurately  adjusted 
as  to  give  a  uniform  rate  of  rise  in  temperature  of  1°  C  per  min- 
ute and  remain  so. 

Repeat  Tests — It  is  not  necessary  to  turn  off  the  test  flame 
with  the  small  regulating  valve  on  the  cover,  but  leave  it  adjusted 
to  give  the  proper  size  of  flame.  Having  completed  the  prelim- 
inary test,  remove  the  heating  lamp,  lift  up  the  oil  cup  cover  and 
wipe  off  the  thermometer  bulb.  Lift  out  the  oil  cup  and  empty 
and  carefully  wipe  it.  Throw  away  all  oil  samples  atter  once 
using  in  making  test.  Pour  cold  water  into  the  water  bath,  allow- 
ing it  to  overflow  into  the  receptacle  until  the  temperature  of  the 
water  in  the  bath  is  lowered  to  8°  C.  below  the  flash  point  of  the 
oil  as  shown  by  the  previous  test.  With  cold  water  of  nearly 


34 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


constant  temperature  it  will  be  found  that  a  uniform  amount  will 
be  required  to  reduce  the  temperature  of  the  water  bath  to  the 
required  point.  Place  the  oil  cup  back  in  the  bath  and  measure 
into  it  a  50  cc  charge  of  fresh  oil.  Destroy  any  bubbles  on  the 
surface  of  the  oil,  put  on  the  cover  with  its  thermometer,  put 
in  the  heating  lamp,  record  time  and  temperature  of  oil  and  water 
and  proceed  to  repeat  test  as  described  above.  Introduce  test 
flame  for  first  time  at  a  temperature  of  5°  C.  below  flash  point 
obtained  on  the  previous  test. 

Precautions. — Be  sure  to  record  barometric  pressure  either 
from  laboratory  barometer  or  from  nearest  Weather  Bureau  Sta- 
tion. Record  temperature  of  room.  Note  and  record  any  flicker- 
ing of  the  test  flame  or  slight  preliminary  flashes  when  the  test 
flame  is  introduced  into  the  cup  before  the  proper  flash  occurs. 
Record  time  and  temperature  of  such  flickers  or  slight  flashes  if 
they  occur. 

With  the  Cleveland  open-cup  tester,  the  oil  is  poured  into  the 
oil  cup  within  5  mm.  of  the  top.  The  flame  is  then  applied  to 
the  air  bath  in  such  manner  that  the  temperature  of  the  oil  in  the 
cup  is  raised  at  the  rate  of  5°  C.  per  minute.  The  testing  flame 
is  made  from  a  piece  of  drawn  glass  tubing,  making  a  flame  about 
5  mm.  in  length.  This  flame  is  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  oil 
every  half  minute.  A  distinct  flicker  or  flash  over  the  entire 
surface  of  the  oil  shows  that  the  flash  point  is  reached  and  the 
temperature  at  this  time  is  recorded. 


Table  8.— CONVERSION  OF  BAROMETRIC  PRESSURE  IN  CENTI- 
METERS TO  INCHES. 


0 

1 

2      3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

70 

27.559 

27.598 

27.638 

27.677 

27.716 

27.756 

27.795 

27.835 

27  .874 

27.913 

71 

27  .953 

27.992 

28.031 

28.071 

28.110 

28.150 

28.139 

28.228 

28.268 

28.307 

72 

28.346 

28.386 

28.425 

28.465 

28.504 

28.543 

28.583 

28.622 

28.661 

28.701 

73 

28.740 

28.779 

28.819 

28.858 

28.898 

28.937 

28.976 

29.016 

29.055 

29.094 

74 

29.134 

29.173 

29.213 

29  .252 

29.291 

29.331 

29.370 

29.409 

29  .449 

29  .488 

75 

29.528 

29.567 

29.606 

29.646 

29.685 

29.724 

29.764 

29.803 

29.842 

29.882 

76 

29.921 

29.961 

30.000 

30.039 

30.079 

30.118 

30.157 

30.197 

30.236 

30.276 

77 

30.315 

30.354 

30.394 

30.433 

30.472 

30.512 

30.551 

30.590 

30.630 

30.669 

Table  8  gives  figures  for  the  conversion  of  barometric  pres- 
sure in  centimeters  to  inchesa  and  Table  9  gives  corrections  of  the 
flash  point  for  normal  barometric  pressure.* 

a.     Bulletin    No.   15,    Kansas   City   Testing   Laboratory,    page   317. 


,  PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  35 

BURNING  POINT 

The  burning  point  of  fuel  oil  is  the  temperature  at  which 
the  vapor  arising  from  the  surface  of  the  oil  ignites  and  burns 
continuously.  It  is  obtained  both  with  the  closed  and  open-cup 
tester  by  continuing  the  flash  point  test  and  noting  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  the  vapor  gives  a  continuous  flame. 

Closed-cup  testers  are  considered  to  give  more  reliable  results 
for  flash  point  determinations  than  do  open-cup  testers,  because 
they  permit ,  better  control  of  the  rate  of  heat,  uniformity  of 
mixing  the  oil  and  exclusion  of  drafts.  With  a  closed-cup  tester 
lower  results  are  always  obtained  than  with  open-cup  testers, 
because  the  inflammable  vapors  given  off  by  the  oil  are  concen- 
trated. 

CALORIFIC  VALUE 

In  order  to  make  a  comparison  between  fuels,  it  is  necessary 
to  know  the  amount  of  heat  wrhich  a  given  quantity  of  the  fuel 
will  give  off  when  burned.  The  amount  of  heat  which  a  given 
quantity  of  a  fuel  gives  off  is  known  as  the  calorific  value  or  heat 
value.  The  standard  measure  of  heat  in  this  country  is  the  British 
thermal  unit.  One  British  thermal  unit  is  the  amount  of  heat 
necessary  to  raise  one  pound  of  pure  water  from  62°  F  to  63°  F. 
It  is  possible  to  calculate  the  calorific  value  of  a  fuel  from  its 
elementary  composition,  but  calculations  which  are  based  upon 
the  ultimate  analysis  of  a  sample  may  be  very  misleading  because 
the  heat  of  combustion  is  dependent  upon  the  state  of  combination 
of  the  elements  in  the  substance,  and  is  never  equal  to  the  sum  of 
those  of  its  elements  taken  proportionately. 

Determination  of  the  calorific  value  of  fuels  is  made  by  means 
of  a  calorimeter.  In  a  calorimeter  a  weighed  amount  of  fuel  is 
completely  burned,  and  the  heat  generated  by  the  combustion  is 
absorbed  by  a  fixed  weight  of  water,  the  amount  of  heat  being 
calculated  from  the  increase  in  the  temperature  of  the  water. 
A  calorimeter,  which  has  been  accepted  as  the  best  for  such 
work,  is  one  in  which  the  fuel  is  burned  in  a  steel  bomb  filled 
with  compressed  oxygen.  The  function  of  the  oxygen,  which  is 
ordinarily  under  a  pressure  of  about  25  atmospheres,  is  to  cause 
the  rapid  and  complete  combustion  of  the  fuel  sample.  The  fuel 
is  ignited  by  means  of  an  electric  current,  allowance  being  made 
for  the  heat  produced  by  such  currents  and  by  the  burning  of 
the  fuse  wire.  Among  the  standard  calorimeters  used  are  the 


36 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


Atwater,  Mahler  and  Kroeker  bombs.  Fig.  9  shows  the  Mahler 
calorimeter.  The  apparatus  consists  of:  A  water  jacket,  A, 
which  maintains  constant  conditions  outside  of  the  calorimeter 
proper,  and  thus  makes  possible  a  more  accurate  computation  of 
radiation  losses;  the  porcelain-lined  steel  bomb,  B,  in  which  the 
combustion  of  the  fuel  takes  place  in  compressed  oxygen ;  the 
platinum  pan,  C,  for  holding  the  fuel ;  the  calorimeter  proper,  D, 
surrounding  the  bomb  and  containing  a  definite  weighed  amount 
of  water;  an  electrode,  E,  connecting  with  the  fuse  wire,  F,  for 

Table  9.— CORRECTIONS  OF  FLASH  POINT  FOR  NORMAL 
BAROMETRIC  PRESSURES. 

To  correct  readings  made  at  other  pressures  to  the  standard  barometric 
pressure  of  760  mm. 


Barometer 
Millimeters. 

Correction 
Degrees  C. 

Barometer 
Millimeters. 

Correction 
Degrees  C. 

700 
705 
710 
715 
720 
725 
730 
735 
740 
745 

-  2.1 
-  1.9 
-  1.7 
-  1.6 
-  1.4 
-  1.2 
-  1.0 
.9 
.7 
—     .5 

750 
755 
760 

765 
770 

775 
780 
785 

.3 
.2 
0 

+     .2 
+     -4 
+     .5 

+     .7 
+     .9 

igniting  the  fuel  placed  in  the  pan,  C ;  a  support,  G,  for  a  water 
agitator;  a  thermometer,  I,  for  temperature  determination  of  the 
water  in  the  calorimeter.  The  thermometer  is  best  supported  by 
a  stand  independent  of  the  calorimeter,  so  that  it  may  not  be 
moved  by  tremors  in  the  parts  of  the  calorimeter,  which  would 
render  the  making  of  readings  difficult.  To  insure  accuracy 
readings  should  be  made  through  a  telescope  or  eyeglass ;  a  spring 
and  screw  device  for  revolving  the  agitator;  a  level,  L,  by  the 
movement  of  which  the  agitator  is  revolved;  a  pressure  gage,  M, 
for  noting  the  pressure  of  the  oxygen  admitted  to  the  bomb. 
Between  20  and  25  atmospheres  are  ordinarily  employed ;  an 
oxygen  tank,  O;  and  a  battery  or  batteries,  P,  the  current  from 
which  heats  the  fuse  wire  used  to  ignite  the  fuel. 

The  description  of  the  operation  of  one  bomb  calorimeter  is 
typical  of  all  of  thema.    The  lower  half  of  the  bomb  is  placed  in 


a.     Bulletin    No.    15,    Kansas    City    Testing   Laboratory. 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  37 

the  cast  iron  holder.  About  one  gram  of  the  oil  is  weighed  to 
the  nearest  0.0001  gram  into  the  fuel  pan  and  is  placed  in  the 
bomb  on  the  fuel  pan  holder.  If  the  oil  is  volatile  it  is  not 
advisable  to  pour  the  fuel  directly  into  the  fuel  pan.  For  this 
purpose  small  gelatine  capsules  weighing  .1  gm.  are  used  and  may 
be  filled  with  ignited  asbestos  and  into  this  the  light  oil  is  dis- 
charged from  a  weighing  pipet.  The  capsule  is  immediately 
closed,  leaving  a  minimum  amount  of  air  space.  A  similar  capsule 
has  been  previously  weighed  and  its  calorific  value  determined.  A 
stock  of  standardized  capsules  should  be  kept  on  hand  in  an  air- 
tight receptacle.  The  platinum  fuse  wire  is  cut  equal  in  length 
to  the  taper  pin  wrench,  which  is  connected  to  the  terminal,  being 
careful  that  it  does  not  touch  the  pan.  The  wire  is  bent  down 
so  that  it  is  covered  by  the  oil  or  by  the  lips  of  the  capsule.  The 
upper  half  of  the  bomb  is  carefully  fitted  on  the  lead  gasket  to  the 
lower  half.  The  nut  is  screwed  down  over  the  upper  half,  being 
careful  not  to  cross  the  threads.  The  bomb  nut  is  now  tightened 
by  the  use  of  the  long  wrench,  being  careful  to  cause  no  sudden 
jerking  or  vibrating  which  will  throw  the  oil  from  the  pan.  The 
bomb  is  now  carefully  lifted  out  and  placed  on  the  swivel  table 
and  connected  with  the  oxygen  piping.  The  valve  in  the  top  of 
the  bomb  is  opened  about  one  turn  and  the  valve  in  the 
oxygen  cylinder  is  carefully  and  slowly  opened  so  that  the  pres- 
sure in  the  bomb  as  shown  by  the  indicator  rises  to  300  pounds. 
The  bomb  valve  is  now  closed  and  the  oxygen  cylinder  valve  is 
closed.  Exactly  1,900  grams  of  water  at  a  temperature  of  about 
4°  below  room  temperature  is  weighed  into  the  calorimeter  water 
bucket.  This  is  placed  in  the  calorimeter  container.  The  bomb 
is  connected  with  the  electric  wire  and  is  introduced  into  the 
water,  being  careful  to  place  it  in  the  center  of  the  bucket.  Two 
100  watt  lamps  placed  in  parallel  are  in  series  with  the  fuse  wire 
when  a  110  volt  circuit  is  used  for  firing.  The  stirring  motor  is 
placed  in  series  with  a  60  watt  lamp  on  a  110  volt  circuit.  The 
cover  is  put  on,  the  connections  to  the  bomb  wire  are  made  and 
the  stirrer  is  introduced  as  far  down  as  it  will  go.  It  should  not 
touch  the  bomb.  The  thermometer  is  introduced  and  stirring  is 
continued  for  about  5  minutes.  The  temperature  is. read  and  the 
stirring  continued  for  exactly  5  minutes  and  the  temperature  is 
again  read  and  the  charge  is  fired  by  quickly  throwing  in  the 
switch  and  withdrawing  it.  The  stirring  is  continued  for  5  min- 


38 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


utes,  the  temperature  being  read  at  minute  intervals  or  at  the  end 
of  5  minutes,  unless  extreme  accuracy  is  required.  The  stirrer  is 
then  run  for  an  additional  5  minutes  and  the  temperature  is  again 
read.  The  thermometer  is  corrected  in  accordance  with  the  cor- 
rections furnished  by  the  Bureau  of  Standards.  The  radiation 
corrections  may  be  applied  to  each  one-minute  interval,  but  for 


ordinary  purposes  1/5  of  the  radiation  for  the  5 -minute  period 
before  firing  is  applied  on  the  5-minute  period  immediately  after 
firing  and  4/5  of  the  radiation  in  the  third  5-minute  period  is 
applied  on  the  5-minute  period  immediately  after  firing.  The 
calorimeter  constant  (usually  about  2,400)  is  determined  by  a 
blank  test  using  exactly  1  gram  of  benzoic  acid.  This  constant 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  39 

always  remains  the  same  with  the  same  calorimeter,  but  must  be 
determined  each  time  a  change  is  made  in  the  calorimeter.  In  the 
case  of  oil  in  which  it  has  been  necessary  to  use  the  capsule  the 
correction  made  must  be  applied  for  the  calorific  value  of  the 
capsule.  This  is  most  conveniently  applied  to  the  corrected  net 
rise  in  temperature  of  the  thermometer.  To  convert  British 
thermal  units  per  pound  to  calories  per  gram,  multiply  by  5/9. 
To  obtain  the  water  evaporative  power,  multiply  the  B.t.u.  per 
pound  by  1.035.  To  obtain  the  B.t.u.  per  gallon,  multiply  the 
B.t.u.  per  pound  by  the  weight  per  gallon.  An  approximation  of 
the  heating  value  of  fuel  oil  can  be  obtained  by  the  following 
formula : 

B.t.u.  in  Ibs.  per  gallon  =  18700  +  40  (° Be—  10). 
A  standard  of  18500  B.t.u.  to  the  pound  of  pure  fuel  oil  is 
a  good  figure  to  be  taken  as  a  basis  if  the  fuel  oil  is  to  be 
purchased  on  calorific  determinations.  A  bonus  may  be  paid  for 
calorific  value  in  excess  of  this  figure  and  deductions  made  if 
the  heat  value  of  the  fuel  is  below  18,500  B.t.u. 's  per  pound.  The 
heat  value  of  fuels  is  measured  by  the  number  of  British  thermal 
units  contained  in  one  pound  of  the  fuel  and  this  statement  fur- 
nishes a  direct  comparison  between  fuels.  Table  10  gives  the 
calorific  values  of  various  oils.a 

WATER  CONTENT 

Fuel  oil  should  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  by  volume 
of  water  and  sediment.  The  method  of  determining  the  amount 
of  water  and  sediment  in  fuel  oil  is  as  follows :  "A  definite 
volume  of  the  oil  sample  should  be  thoroughly  shaken  or  'cut' 
with  an  equal  volume  of  gasoline  of  a  specific  gravity  not  greater 
than  0.74,  and  centrifuged.  An  appropriate  tube  that  goes  with 
a  special  machine  is  commonly  used  for  this  purpose.  (See 
fig.  10)  .b  Centrifuging  should  be  continued  until  there  is  a  clear 
line  of  demarcation  between  the  water  and  sediment  and  oil  in 
the  bottom  of  the  tube,  and  until  a  constant  reading  of  water  and 
sediment  is  obtained.  From  this  reading  the  percentage  by 
volume  of  water  and  sediment  is  computed.  If  the  oil  under 
consideration  has  a  specific  gravity  greater  than  0.96  one  volume 
of  oil  to  three  volumes  of  gasoline  should  be  used  rather  than 
equal  volumes.  When  there  is  a  question  that  the  gasoline  used 

a.  Fuel   Oil   and   Its  Uses,  Tate-Jones  and   Company,   Inc. 

b.  Courtesy  of  C.  J.   Tagliabue  Company. 


40 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


for  thinning  the  oil  in  making  this  determination  renders  insoluble 
certain  of  its  fuel  constituents,  then  mixtures  of  gasoline  and 
carbon  disulphide,  or  of  gasoline  and  benzol  may  be  used  for 
"cutting,"  providing  the  specific  gravity  of  such  mixtures  is  not 
greater  than  0.74.  If,  after  continued  centrifuging,  a  clear  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  impurities  and  the  oil  is  not  obtain- 
able, the  uppermost  line  should  be  read.  If  this  procedure  proves 
unsatisfactory,  100  C.C.  of  the  sample  may  be  distilled  with  an 
excess  of  hydrocarbons  saturated  with  water  and  having  boiling 
points  slightly  above  and  below  that  of  water.  Distillation  is 
continued  until  all  of  the  water  has  been  distilled  over  into  a 
graduated  tube.  The  water  in  the  oil  is  thus  distilled  over  and 
readily  collects  at  the  bottom  of  this  tube,  where  the  percentage 


FIG.   10. — An   electrically   driven 
centrifuge. 

may  be  read  off.  The  percentage  of  sediment  in  the  oil  may  then 
be  determined  on  the  sample  remaining  in  the  distilling  flask  by 
"cutting"  it  with  gasoline  and  centrifuging.  The  percentage  of 
water  obtained  in  the  tube  added  to  the  percentage  of  sediment 
gives  a  total  percentage  to  be  deducted  for  moisture  and 
impurities. 

SULPHUR  CONTENT 

Appreciable  sulphur  content  in  a  fuel  oil  is  objectionable. 
However,  a  content  of  4  per  cent  or  less  is  not  sufficiently  objec- 
tionable to  cause  the  rejection  of  a  fuel  oil  for  general  purposes. 
(In  general,  experiments  in  burning  fuel  oils  of  various  sulphur 
content  have  shown  that  the  corrosive  effects  on  the  boiler  tubes 
or  heating  surfaces  are  negligible.  However,  with  steel  stacks  and 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL 


41 


low  stack-gas  temperatures,  considerable  corrosion  in  the  stack 
has  been  noted.)  In  handling  these  oils,  prior  to  burning,  the 
corrosive  action  of  the  sulphur  on  steel  storage  tanks,  piping,  etc., 
is  quite  apparent  and  should  be  considered.  If  the  oil  is  to  be 
used  for  special  metallurgical  or  other  purposes  where  sulphur 
fumes  are  decidedly  objectionable,  it  is  necessary  to  specify  a 
limiting  figure  for  the  sulphur  content  of  the  oil.  The  sulphur 

Table  10.— CALORIFIC  VALUES  OF  VARIOUS  OILS3. 


Beaume0 

Specific 
Gravity 

Pounds 
in  a 
Gallon 

Calculated 
B.  T.  U. 
per  Pound 

Calculated 
B.  T.  U. 
per  Gallon 

Remarks 

14 

.9722 

8.10 

18810 

152361 

15 

.9655 

8.05 

18850 

151743 

16 

.9589 

7.99 

18890 

150931 

17 

.9523 

7.94 

18930 

150304 

Mexico,  California, 

18 

.9459 

7.88 

18970 

149484 

Crudes  and  Fuel  Oil. 

19 

.9395 

7.83 

19010 

148848 

20 

.9333 

7.78 

19050 

148209 

21 

.9271 

7.73 

19090 

147506 

22 

.9210 

7.68 

19130 

146918 

23 

.9150 

7.63 

19170 

146267 

24 

.9090 

7.58 

19210 

145612 

25 

.9032 

7.54 

19250 

145145 

26 

.8974 

7.49 

19290 

144482 

27 

.8917 

7.44 

19330 

143815 

28 

.8860 

7.39 

19370 

143144 

29 

.8805 

7.34 

19410 

142269 

Kansas,  Oklahoma 

30 

.8750 

7.29 

19450 

141790 

Pennsylvania  Fuel  Oil, 

31 

.8695 

7.25 

19490 

141303 

Fuel  Oil. 

32 

.8641 

7.21 

19530 

140811 

33 

.8588 

7.16 

19570 

140121 

34 

.8536 

7.12 

19610 

139623 

! 

35 

.8484 

7.07 

19650 

138926 

a.     Fuel  Oil  and  Its  Use,  Tate-Jones  &  Co.,  Inc. 


42  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

Table  10.— CALORIFIC  VALUES  OF  VARIOUS  OILS.— Continued. 


Beaume0 

Specific 
Gravity 

Pounds 
in  a 
Gallon 

Calculated 
B.  T.  U. 
per  Pound 

Calculated 
B.  T.  U. 
per  Gallon 

Remarks 

36 

.8433 

7.03 

19690 

138421 

1 

37 

.8383 

6.99 

19730 

137913 

I 

38 

.8333 

6.95 

19770 

137402 

39 

.8284 

6.91 

19810 

136887 

Ohio,  Pennsylvania  and 
West  Virginia  Crudes, 

40 

.8235 

6.87 

19850 

136370 

California  and  Kansas 
Refined. 

41 

.8187 

6.83 

19890 

135849 

42 

.8139 

6.80 

19930 

135524 

43 

.8092 

6.76 

19970 

134997 

44 

.8045 

6.72 

20010 

134367 

45 

.8000 

6.68 

20050 

133934 

46 

.7954 

6.64 

20090 

133398 

1 

47 

.7909 

6.60 

20130 

132858 

| 
| 

48 

.7865 

6.57 

20170 

132517 

[Kerosene  and  Gasoline. 
I 

49 

.7821 

6.53 

20210 

131971 

', 

50 

.7777 

6.49 

20250 

131423 

,f 

content  can  be  determined  in  the  bomb  calorimeter  after  the 
calorific  value  has  been  determined.  The  calorimeter  is  opened 
by  gradually  allowing  the  pressure  to  diminish  and  the  bomb  is 
carefully  and  thoroughly  washed  out  with  distilled  water.  The 
pan  is  placed  in  the  beaker  with  the  washings  and  about  10  cc. 
of  hydrochloric  acid  is  added.  The  contents  of  the  beaker  are 
treated  with  bromine,  heated  to  boiling  temperature  for  about  10 
minutes,  filtered  and  washed  and  the  sulphur  in  the  filtrate  precipi- 
tated with  10  cc.  of  barium  chloride  solution.  The  precipitated 
barium  sulphate  is  filtered,  washed  and  weighed  in  the  usual  man- 
ner. The  weight  of  the  barium  sulphate  X  13,733  and  divided  by 
oil. 

Fuel  oil  in  this  country  is  purchased  by  volume  and  not  by 
weight.  Table  10  shows  that  a  gallon  of  oil  of  high  specific 
gravity  has  a  higher  calorific  value  than  a  gallon  of  oil  of  low 


PROPERTIES  OF  FUEL  OIL  43 

specific  gravity.  This  fact  should  he  remembered  by  users  of 
oil  fuel,  because  in  buying  fuel  calorific  value  is  sought.  Indi- 
vidual conditions  and  requirements  at  the  points  of  consumption 
influence  to  a  large  degree  the  specifications  for  viscosity,  flash 
point  and  sulphur  content.  Definite  specifications  can  be  drawn 
for  a  fuel  oil  which  will  meet  practically  all  requirements,  but  it 
can  readily  be  seen  that  such  specifications  will  exclude  much  of 
the  fuel  oil  now  available,  and  for  most  purposes  the  requirements 
need  not  be  severe.  Hence,  it  is  advised  that  in  purchasing  fuel 
oil  the  individual  requirements  be  studied,  and  that  as  lenient 
specifications  as  possible  be  written,  which  will  insure  an  oil  that 
will  be  satisfactory  for  the  conditions  for  which  it  is  intended. 


CHAPTER  III 
COMPARISON  OF  COAL  AND  FUEL  OIL 

The  term  "Coal"  as  applied  to  fuel  is  very  loosely  used.  The 
word  is  applied  to  a  variety  of  substances  ranging  from  turf 
through  peat,  lignite,  semi-bituminous  and  bituminous  coals  to 
anthracite.  It  is  obvious  that  no  comparison  can  be  drawn 
between  coal  and  any  other  fuel  unless  the  specifications  of  the 
coal  are  stated.  The  value  of  the  chemical  analysis  of  a  sample 
of  a  given  coal  to  an  engineer,  power-plant  superintendent,  or  coal 
dealer,  is  a  matter  that  has  given  rise  to  much  discussion.  The 
general  weight  of  opinion  seems  to  be  that  an  analysis  is  often  of 
the  highest  value,  and  that  the  time  and  labor  involved  in  making 
it  are  well  spent.  However,  it  is  clear  that  analyses  are  of  greater 
value  to  some  engineers  or  users  of  coal  than  to  others ;  and  that, 
at  the  present  time,  they  cannot  entirely  supplant  in  all  cases  the 
information  to  be  obtained  from  carefully  conducted  tests  in 
boiler  furnaces  but  should  supplement  such  information,  when  the 
latter  is  obtainable. 

In  the  testing  of  coals  in  the  Government  service  the  chief 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  accepting  or  rejecting  untried  coals  on 
the  basis  of  chemical  analyses  alone  have  proved  to  be  as  follows : 

(1)  An  ordinary  analysis  of  a  coal  shows  the  percentage  of 
ash,  but  does  not  indicate  the  extent  to  which  this  ash  may  fuse 
or  slag  on  the  grate  bars  of  the  furnace,  and  thus  seriously  inter- 
fere with  the  rate  and  completeness  of  the  combustion.     Though 
progress  has  been  made  toward  the  determination  of  the  liability 
to  clinker,  through  a  study  of  the  composition  of  the  ash,  the 
results  obtained  are  not  as  yet  altogether  satisfactory. 

(2)  There  seems  to  be  a  variability  in  the  heating  value  of 
the  volatile  matter  in  the  coal,  which  is  not  clearly  indicated  by 
the  percentage  of  the  volatile  matter,  as  determined  either  by  the 
usual  methods,  or  by  the  ordinary  calorimetric  determinations. 

(3)  The  caking  of  the  surface  coal  in  the  fire  box  appears 
to  interfere  with  the  draft,  and  hence,  with  the  rate  arid  complete- 
ness of  the  combustion,  and,  therefore,  impairs  the  fuel  value  of 
the  coal  to  a  degree  that  is  not  ordinarily  indicated  by  chemical 
analyses. 

44 


COMPARISON  OF  COAL  AND  FUEL  OIL 


45 


For  all  practical  purposes  the  coal  produced  in  the  United 
States  may  be  divided  into  three  classes,  anthracite,  bituminous 
and  lignite.  The  great  bulk  of  the  country's  coal  supply,  however, 
is  bituminous  or  soft  coal.  Table  11  shows  the  production  of  coal 
in  recent  years  in  the  United  States . 


FIG.  11. — Bedded  impurities  in  a  seam  of  Illinois  coal. 

Table  11.— PRODUCTION  OF  COAL  IN  UNITED  STATES. 


Year 

Total 
(In  tho 

Bituminous 
usands  of  gro 

Anthracite 
ss  tons) 

1909-13  (5  year  average).  . 
1914 

457,716 
458,505 
474,660 
526,873 
581,609 
605,546 
508,000 

380,515 
377,414 
395,200 
448,678 
492,670 
517,309 
432,000 

77,201 
81,091 
79,460 
78,195 
88,939 
88,237 
76,000 

1915 

1916       .  . 

1917       .  . 

1918       .  .    . 

1919  

Bituminous  is  the  chief  steam  coal  and  when  comparisons  are 
made  between  coal  and  fuel  oil,  bituminous  coal  is  used  as  a  basis. 
Bituminous  coal  deposits  are  almost  always  underlain  by  fire 
clay  and  almost  always  are  overlain  by  a  stratum  of  shale.  The 
fire  clay  is  the  residuum  of  the  original  soil  in  which  grew  the 


46 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


4 

4 


UJ 


COMPARISON  OF  COAL  AND  FUEL   OIL          47 

luxuriant  vegetation  that  supplied  the  material  for  the  coal  seams. 
When  the  swamps  in  which  this  vegetation  grew  subsided  and 
when  the  water  covering  them  grew  deeper,  a  fine  silt  was  de- 
posited and  this  silt  through  pressure  became  the  shale  of  today. 
In  addition  to  the  impurities  such  as  bands  of  clay,  shale  or 
pyrites  which,  as  shown  in  fig.  11,  are  found  in  the  coal  itself 
as  it  lies  in  the  seam,  the  method  of  mining  employed  in  the  United 
States  is  responsible  for  the  addition  to  the  coal  of  fire  clay  from 
the  floor  and  shale  from  the  roof.  A  sample  of  coal  taken  at  the 
face  of  a  mine  is  only  roughly  indicative  of  the  coal  loaded  in 
railroad  cars  at  that  mine.  Although  theoretically  all  pieces  of 
fire  clay,  shale  and  pyrites  or  iron  sulphide,  are  hand  picked  by 
the  miner  and  thrown  to  one  side,  in  practice  great  quantities 
of  these  impurities  are  loaded  out  by  the  miner  and  appear  at 
the  tipple  on  the  surface.  Inasmuch  as  these  impurities  are 
usually  of  small  size,  a  greater  percentage  of  impurity  will  be 
found  in  the  small  sizes  of  coal  and  the  screenings  or  slack  coal 
will  contain  a  very  high  percentage  of  impurities.  This  is  well 
illustrated  in  fig.  12,  which  shows  tlTe  size  elements  of  commercial 
2-inch  screenings  and  the  size  elements  of  l^J-inch  screenings. 
Of  the  2-inch  screenings,  66.8  per  cent  passed  through  a  1-inch 
screen,  41.1  per  cent  through  a  ^-inch,  and  26.9  through  a 
i^-inch.  Of  the  1%-inch  screenings,  95.5  per  cent  passed  through 
a  1-inch  screen,  57.6  through  a  X'-mcn<  and  37.6  through  a 
M-inch.  (See  fig.  13. )a 

The  sizes  larger  than  screenings  are  used  for  domestic  and 
special  purposes.  The  screenings  or  slack  coal  are  used  for  steam 
purposes,  inasmuch  as  sized  coal  is  much  too  expensive  to  be 
burned  under  industrial  boilers.  Slack  coal  which  contains  as  low 
as  12  per  cent  ash  is  of  extremely  good  quality  and  in  practice 
many  slack  coals  are  burned  which  carry  as  high  as  25  per 
cent  ash. 

Illinois  is  a  representative  industrial  state.  The  varieties  of 
fuel  used  in  Illinois  power  plants  are  central  bituminous  coal,  as 
represented  by  those  of  the  coal  fields  of  Illinois,  Western  Ken- 
tucky and  Indiana  and  eastern  bituminous  and  semi-bituminous 
or  soft  coals  from  the  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia  and  Eastern 
Kentucky  fields.  All  of  these  coals  are  composed  of  the  following 
materials  in  varying  proportions : 

a.     Proceedings    of    the    Ninth    Annual    Convention    of    the    International    Railway 
ruel  Association,   1917,  p.   133. 


48 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


( 1 )  Solid  or  fixed  carbon  which  burns   with  a  glow  and 
without  flame. 

(2)  Gases  or  volatile  materials  which  escape  from  the  coal 
when  it  is  heated  and  which  burn  with  a  flame. 

(3)  Gases  or  volatile  matter  and  water  which  escape  from 
the  coal  when  it  is  heated  and  which  do  not  burn. 

(4)  Ash  or  mineral  matter  which  does  not  burn  and  which 
remains  as  ashes  after  the  coal  is  burned. 

The  bituminous  coals  of  the  central  field  (Illinois  type)  con- 
tain from  40  to  55  per  cent  of  fixed  carbon,  10  to  25  per  cent  of 
combustible  gas,  5  to  15  per  cent  of  non-combustible  gas,  8  to  15 


SIZE  OF  THE  SCREENS-INCHES 


FIG.  13. —  Percentage  of  weight  of  coal  which  passes  through  the  various  screens. 

per  cent  of  moisture,  and  8  to  15  per  cent  of  ash.  When  improp- 
erly fired  or  burned  in  furnaces*  not  adapted  to  their  use,  central 
bituminous  coals  give  off  so  large  an  amount  of  sooty  material 
that  flues  are  often  quickly  clogged.  These  unconsumed  volatile 
products  also  represent  a  direct  loss  of  heat  value.  Coals  of  the 
Illinis,  type  ignite  easily  and  burn  freely. 

The  moisture  arid  non-combustible  gases  present  in  all  coals 
are  detected  only  by  chemical  analysis.  They  not  only  do  not 
produce  heat,  but  represent  a  definite  loss  because  they  absorb 
and  carry  off  heat  which  would  otherwise  be  available  for  useful 
purposes.  The  term  moisture  in  coal  does  not  mean  the  water 
adhering  to  the  surface  of  the  lumps,  but  that  contained  within 


COMPARISON  OF  COAL  AND  FUEL   OIL 


49 


the  pores  of  the  coal.  A  coal  containing  a  high  percentage  of 
moisture  by  analysis  may  appear  perfectly  dry. 

The  ash  content  of  different  coals  varies  greatly.  Ash  is 
non-combustible  mineral  matter,  which  not  only  has  no  heating 
value,  and  therefore,  represents  a  portion  of  the  coal  from  which 
no  return  is  received,  but  it  may  hinder  the  free  burning  of  the 
combustible  components  of  the  coal.  If  the  ash  contains  certain 
mineral  substances,  it  may  by  clinkering  greatly  interfere  with 
the  process  of  firing  and  with  the  cleaning  of  grates.  The  ash 
normally  is  removed  through  the  ashpit  into  which  often  passes 
also  a  certain  amount  of  unburned  coal.  For  this  reason  the 
amount  of  ashes  removed  from  the  pit  usually  represents  a  larger 
percentage  of  the  fuel  fired  than  the  analysis  of  the  ash  content 
indicates. 

The  eastern  bituminous  coals  contain  from  5  to  10  per  cent 
of  ash,  from  25  to  35  per  cent  of  combustible  gases,  from  2  to  5 
per  cent  of  moisture  and  non-combustible  gases,  and  from  55  to  65 
per  cent  of  solid  carbon.  They  are  more  generally  of  the  coking 
variety  than  are  the  Middle  West  coals.  In  general,  they  are 
higher  in  heating  value  and  lower  in  ash.  They  are  more  friable 
and  are  not  so  well  suited  for  transportation  and  repeated  hand- 
ling as  are  many  of  the  central  bituminous  coals. 

Table  12  gives  the  analysis  of  these  coals. 

Table    12.— ANALYSES   OF    COALS   OF    ILLINOIS,    INDIANA   AND 
WESTERN  KENTUCKY.* 

(Figures  are  for  face  samples  and  for  coal  "as  received.") 
ILLINOIS  (AVERAGE  ANALYSES). 


District 

Coal 
Bed 

Moisture 

Volatile 
Matter 

Fixed 
Carbon 

Ash 

B.  t.  u. 
(Heating 
Value) 

LaSalle  

2 

16.18 

38.83 

37.89 

7.08 

10,981 

Murphysboro  

2 

9.28 

33.98 

51.02 

5.72 

12,488 

Rock  Island  and 

Mercer  Counties  

1 

13.46 

38.16 

39.75 

8.63 

11,036 

Springfield-Peoria  

5 

15.10 

36.79 

37.59 

10.53 

10,514 

Saline  County 

5 

6.75 

35.49 

48.72 

9.04 

12,276 

Franklin  and  Williamson 

Counties  

6 

9.21 

34.00 

48.08 

8.71 

11,825 

Southwestern  Illinois  .  .  . 

6 

12.56 

38.05 

39.06 

10.33 

10,847 

Danville;  Grape  Creek 

coal  

6 

14.45 

35.88 

40.33 

9.34 

10,919 

Danville  ;  Danville  coal  .  . 

7 

12.99 

38.29 

38.75 

9.98 

11,143 

a.     Engineering  Experiment  Station,  University  of  Illinois,   Fuel   Economy   in  the 
Operation  of  Hand  Fired  Power  Hants. 


50 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


INDIANA  (TYPICAL  ANALYSES). 


District 

Coal 
Bed 

Moist  ur  e 

Volatile 
Matter 

Fixed 
Carbon 

Ash 

B.  t.  u. 

(Heating 
Value) 

Clay  County  

Green  County  
Green  County  
Sullivan  County  
Sullivan  County  
Sullivan  County  

(Brazil 
block) 
IV 
V 
IV 
V 
VI 

15.38 
13.53 
10.30 
12.15 
12.14 
14.86 

32.66 
33.54 
36.31 
33.48 
35.17 
31.65 

46.08 
45.38 
41.64 
46.23 
43.73 
46.14 

5.88 
7.55 
11.75 
8.14 
8.96 
7.35 

11,680 
11,738 
11,218 
11,722 
11,516 
11,324 

KENTUCKY  (AVERAGE  OF  COMPOSITE  SAMPLES). 


_  .  



i5.  t.  u. 

Coal 

Volatile 

Fixed 

(Heating 

District 

Bed 

Moisture 

Matter 

Carbon 

Ash 

Value) 

9 

8.17 

36.82 

45.17 

9.83 

11,867 

11 

7.33 

38.28 

45.28 

9.11 

12,056 

12 

9.67 

34.86 

46.46 

9.01 

11,695 

"As  received"  samples  represent  the  coal  as  taken  from  the  mine.  It  is  probable 
that  the  values  given  are  tairly  representative  of  the  coal  as  purchased  from  local 
dealers. 

Moisture  in  coal  represents  an  appreciable  loss  in  economy 
inasmuch  as  the  coal  may  carry  16  per  cent  moisture  and  the  heat 
required  to  evaporate  it  must  be  furnished  by  the  coal  itself,  thus 
decreasing  the  amount  available  to  heat  water  in  the  boiler.  In 
excellent  practice  the  per  cent  of  the  calorific  value  of  coal  as 
fired,  which  is  lost  by  the  evaporation  of  free  moisture,  is  given 
by  Gebhardta  as  0.5  per  cent ;  in  average  practice,  0.6  per  cent ; 
and  in  poor  practice,  0.7  per  cent. 

Fig.  14  is  a  chartb  prepared  by  Mr.  Joseph  Harrington,  com- 
bustion engineer,  showing  the  influence  of  moisture  in  coal  on 
its  evaporative  power  as  a  fuel.  With  a  moisture  content  of  30 
per  cent,  slightly  more  than  10,000  heat  units  out  of  a  total  of 
15,000  are  available. 

It  is  obvious  that  ash  is  simply  a  diluting  material,  but  never- 
theless when  slack  coal  is  burned  the  ash  content  of  the  coal  has 
been  transported  from  the  mine  to  the  industrial  plant,  which 
may  be  hundreds  of  miles  away.  Freight  for  the  ash  and  mois- 
ture content  of  slack  coal  must  be  paid  for,  although  they  are  not 
only  of  no  value,  but  actually  are  an  added  expense  in  operation. 
(See  fig.  15.)  The  loss  of  coal  through  the  grates  is  a  serious 
item.  The  refuse  from  a  fuel  is  that  portion  which  falls  into  the 


a.  Gebhardt,    Steam    Power   Plant   Engineering    p.   05. 

b.  Hays  School  of  Combustion,   Instruction   Book   Number  Two,   page   12. 


COMPARISON  OP  COAL  AND  FUEL   OIL 


51 


pit  in  the  form  of  ashes,  unburned  or  partially  burned  fuel  and 
cinders.  In  steam  boiler  practice  the  unconsumed  carbon  in  the 
ash  pit  ranges  from  15  to  50  per  cent  of  the  total  weight  of  dry 
refuse  depending  upon  the  size  and  quality  of  coal,  type  of  grate 
and  rate  of  driving.  The  loss  resulting  from  this  waste  of  fuej 
ranges  from  1.5  to  10  per  cent  or  more,  of  the  heat  value  of  the 
fuel.  It  is  impossible  to  assign  a  minimum  value  because  of  thi 
various  influencing  factors,  but  numerous  tests  of  recent  installa- 
tions, equipped  with  mechanical  stokers,  indicate  that  actual  loss 
ranges  from  1.5  to  5  per  cent  of  the  heat  value  of  the  fuel  at 


Ifctfo 

N» 

^ 

IT 

?; 

AC 

K 

£•« 

t'~ 

123 

%  * 

V 

s 

\ 

«C 

I) 

\ 

^MM 

^niii 

fit 

i 

\ 

^^ 

i 

tt» 

i 

* 

\ 

""I 

i 

\ 

Jtft 

! 

\ 

c 

V 

I 

\ 

< 

2a6 

V 

* 

\ 

%*» 

1 

\ 

Ny 

>  x 

FIG.  14. — Influence  of  moisture  in  coal  on  evaporative  power  of  the  fuel. 

normal  driving  rates.  Coal  which  necessitates  frequent  slicing  is 
apt  to  give  greater  losses  from  this  cause  than  a  free  burning  coal. 
The  losses  of  B.t.u.  due  to  the  combustible  matter  in  the 
refuse  per  pound  of  coal  as  fired  may  be  calculated  by  the  follow- 
ing formula : 

C 

A X  14600 

(1-C)^ 

Where  A  =  chemical  ash  in  coal 

C  =  percentage  of  combustible  matter  in  the  refuse. 
14600  =  calorific  value  in  B.t.u.  of  one  Ib.  of  carbon  burned 

to  CO,. 
At  a  coal-burning  installation  a  continuous  24-hour  full  load 


52 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


test  may  show  that  80  per  cent  of  the  heat  of  the  coal  is  absorbed 
by  the  boiler,  but  when  the  heat  represented  by  a  month's  evap- 
oration is  divided  by  the  heat  of  the  coal  fed  to  the  furnace  during 
the  same  period  the  efficiency  may  drop  to  70  per  cent  or  lower. 
In  an  eight-hour  day  plant  the  fires  must  be  banked  at  the  con- 
clusion of  the  day's  run  and  this  banking  occasions  a  fuel  loss 


1UU 

90 
80 
70 

I  «° 

0 

i  50 

£ 

K 

i» 

30 
20 
10 

\ 

V 

X 

X 

x 

\ 

>^ 

\ 

s 

S 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

v 

\ 

> 

\ 

\ 

Influence  of  Ash  on  Fuel  Value  of  Dry 
Coal.  (Illinois  Screenings) 
B.  &  W.  Boiler,  Chain  Grate. 
Screenings  with  12.5  Per  Cent  Ash 
taken  at  100. 

\ 

\ 

\ 

\ 

I0"1" 

s.\y.E. 

3cl.l906 

..™     4 

10  20  30  40 

Per  Cent  of  Ash  in  Dry  Coal 

FIG.   15. — Influence  of  ash   on  fuel  value  of  dry  coal. 

which  is  obviated  when  oil  is  used.     Table   13  gives  the   coal 
burned  during  banking  periods : 

In  hand-fired  boilers  another  loss  is  occasioned  by  the  opening 
of  the  fire  box  door,  which  admits  a  great  inrush  of  cold  air, 
reducing  fire  box  temperatures  and  preventing  the  complete  com- 
bustion of  carbon  so  that  the  loss  of  heat  units  through  the  stack- 
is  greately  increased. 


COMPARISON  OF  COAL  AND  FUEL   OIL 


53 


PULVERIZED  COAL 

To  overcome  the  obvious  disadvantages  in  burning  raw  coal 
screenings,  the  idea  was  conceived  of  pulverizing  the  coal  and 
introducing  the  pulverized  coal  into  the  furnace  by  air  pressure. 
The  early  attempts  to  burn  pulverized  coal  under  stationary  boilers 
were  unsuccessful  because  the  coal  was  not  thoroughly  dried  and 
was  not  pulverized  finely  enough.  In  introducing  the  powdered 
coal  into  the  furnace,  too  high  pressures  were  used,  resulting  in  a 
blow-pipe  effect  creating  zones  in  the  furnace  in  which  the  gases 
had  high  velocity.  The  impingement  of  these  gases  against  the 
refractories  caused  a  serious  erosive  action.  Later  experiments 
showed  that  seven  feet  per  second  is  the  maximum  velocity  which 
can  be  maintained  without  destruction  of  the  refractories.  The 

Table  13.— COAL  BURNED  DURING  BANKING  PERIODS  .» 


Coal  Fed  to  Fur- 

Rated 

Ratio 

Hours 

nace,  Lb.  per  Boi- 

Capacity 

Kind  of  Stoker 

Heating  to 

Kind  of  Coal 

Banked 

lerHp.-Hr. 

of  Boiler 

Grate 

Surface 

A       1       B       |       C 

250 
500 

Stationary  grate 
Chain  grate 

35 
65 

Buckwheat 
Bit.  scrg. 

8 

13 

0.20 
0.40 

0.35 
0.52 

1000 

350 

Chain  grate 

40 

Bit.  No.  3 

9 

0.32 

0.62 

1600 

250 

Chain  grate 

48 

Bit.  scrg. 

7 

0.35 

0.71 

1450 

1200 

Underfeed 

82 

Bit.  scrg. 

10 

0.18 

0.20 

2600 

550 

Underfeed 

66 

Bit.  scrg. 

9 

0.29 

0.37 

1165 

150 

Stationary  grate 

40 

Bit.  mine  run 

12 

0.58 

0.69 

560 

75 

Stationary  grate 

48 

Poc.  lump 

12 

0.81 

0.95 

300 

400 

Murphy 

52 

Bit.  scrg. 

13 

0.26 

0.33 

1350 

(A)  Coal  fired  during  banking  period. 

(B)  Coal   fed   to    furnace    during   baking   period    including    that    required    to    put 
boiler  into  service  at  end  of  banking  period. 

(C)  Coal  fed  to  furnace  to  put  cold  boiler  into  service,  pound. 

object  of  pulverizing  the  coal  is  to  make  a  more  complete  mixture 
of  the  coal  particles  with  the  air  in  order  that  complete  combus- 
tion may  be  obtained  with  a  low  percentage  of  excess  air.  All 
grades  of  coal  can  be  burned  in  pulverized  form  with  high 
efficiency,  regardless  of  the  percentage  of  ash.  The  additional 
cost  of  pulverizing  the  coal  is,  however,  an  important  item.  In 
an  address  recently  delivered  before  the  American  Society  of 
Mechanical  Engineers,  Mr.  H.  B.  Barnhurst,  chief  engineer  of 
the  Fuller  Engineering  Company,  gave  the  following  estimate 
of  the  cost  of  pulverizing  coal : 


a.     Gebhardt,   Steam  Power  Plant  Engineering,  p.  72. 


54  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

"The  following  cost  of  pulverizing  is  made  of  a  number  of 
items  as  follows :  Power,  repairs,  drier  fuel  and  labor.  The  first 
two  items  are  nearly  constant.  The  drier  fuel  will  vary  slightly, 
according  to  the  price  at  which  coal  is  received.  The  cost  of  labor 
diminishes  as  the  quantity  of  coal  increases.  In  the  following 
table  the  power  is  assumed  as  costing  ^-cent  per  kw-hr.  Repairs 
at  7  cents  per  net  ton.  The  dried  fuel  is  based  on  coal  at  $5  per 
net  ton  delivered  with  an  average  moisture  content  of  7  per  cent, 
assuming  that  6  per  cent  of  moisture  would  be  driven  off  per 
pound  of  coal  in  the  drier.  The  furnace  labor  is  assumed  at  50 
cents  per  hour." 

COST  OF  PULVERIZING  AND  DELIVERING  THE  PULVERIZED 
FUEL  TO  BOILER  FURNACES. 


Daily 

Capacity 

Cost  of 

Number 

Repairs 

Drier 

Power 

Cost  of 

in  Tons 

Labor 

Labor  Hours 

Fuel 

Pulverizing 

20 

30c 

12 

7c 

6c 

13 

56c 

30 

30c 

18 

7c 

6c 

13 

56c 

40 

25c 

22 

7c 

6c 

13 

51c 

80 

20c 

32 

7c 

6c 

13 

46c 

120 

18c 

42 

7c 

6c 

13 

44c 

160 

17c 

48 

7c 

6c 

13 

43c 

240 

13c 

62 

7c 

6c 

13 

39c 

320 

lie 

72 

7c 

6c 

13 

37c 

400 

lOc 

83 

7c 

6c 

13 

36c 

480 

9.5c 

94 

7c 

6c 

13 

35.  5c 

640 

8c 

104 

7c 

6c 

13 

34c 

800 

6.75c 

108 

7c 

6c 

13 

32.75c 

960 

6c 

114 

7c 

6c 

13 

32c. 

1,120 

5c 

116 

7c 

6c 

13 

31c 

No  interest,  depreciation,  insurance  or  taxes  have  been  included  in  the 
above  total. 

Although  experiments  in  burning  pulverized  coal  were  begun 
as  early  as  1876,  there  has  not  as  yet  been  any  thoroughly  satis- 
factory method  of  taking  care  of  the  ash  resulting  from  the  burn- 
ing of  tne  coal.  When  a  slack  coal  with  a  high  ash  percentage  is 
pulverized,  the  pulverized  coal  still  contains  the  same  percentage 
of  ash  as  did  the  slack.  Under  the  high  heat  developed  in  a  fire 
box  which  burns  powdered  coal  this  ash  forms  a  pasty  slag  which 
adheres  to  the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  fire  box.  The  removal  of 
this  slag  is  accomplished  with  great  difficulty  and  unless  the  slag 
is  removed  at  frequent  intervals,  draft  is  interfered  with  and 
heat  radiation  to  the  boiler  is  decreased.  Mr.  C.  F.  Herrington, 


COMPARISON   OF  COAL  AND  FUEL   OIL          55 

probably  one  of  the  highest  authorities  in  the  United  States  on 
the  burning  of  powdered  coal,  makes  in  Engineering  News  the 
following  comparison  between  oil  and  powdered  coal : 

"Of  the  three  fuels,  powdered  coal,  oil  and  water  gas,  fuel 
oil  has  come  into  use  far  more  than  any  other.  The  U.  S.  Navy 
Yards  have  been  consistent  in  their  adoption  of  it.  All  now  use 
fuel  oil  for  heating  operations,  many  to  the  complete  exclusion 
of  coal.  Without  a  doubt,  fuel  oil  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  fuels  to 
handle;  it  can  be  carried  in  pipes  anywhere  so  long  as  there  is 
air  pressure  or  pump  pressure  behind  it.  It  requires  only  a  com- 
paratively small  outlay  for  equipment — all  that  is  necessary  is  a 
couple  of  storage  tanks,  a  pump  to  fill  the  storage  tanks  from  the 
cars,  a  piping  system  to  the  furnaces,  and  means  to  secure  the 
necessary  pressure.  As  a  fuel  for  burning  under  boilers,  pow- 
dered coal  may  some  time  be  a  success.  The  use  of  powdered 
coal  in  Portland  cement  manufacture  has  proven  very  economical 
and  here  it  has  come  to  stay.  But  when  it  is  claimed  that  it  is 
equally  good  for  various  heating  operations,  such  as  welding, 
shingling,  annealing,  riveting  and  forging,  there  is  likely  to  be  a 
difference  of  opinion." 

In  a  recent  article  in^  an  engineering  paper  the  following 
advantages  were  claimed  for  powdered  coal : 

(1)  "Complete  combustion,  doing  away  with  losses  due  to 
the   carbon   contained   in   the   ash  and   in   the   escaping   volatile 
matter."    This  is  not  correct,  for  if  one  stands  for  an  hour  watch- 
ing one  of  these  furnaces  working,  as  the  writer  did,  he  will  be 
completely  covered  with  fine,  unburned  powdered  coal,  which  has 
escaped  through  the   furnace   doors.     This  has  become   such  a 
nuisance    to    the    surrounding    machinery    and    workmen    that 
attempts  are  now  being  made  to  relieve  these  conditions  by  placing 
a  hood  over  the  furnace  door  and  connecting  it  into  the  furnace 
stack.    This  has  not  proven  successful  as  yet,  and  probably  will 
not  until  an  exhaust  fan  is  provided  to  discharge  this  unburned 
coal  through  the  roof. 

(2)  "Total  absence  of  smoke."     Certainly  this  is  not  true 
inside  of  the  shop,  for  powdered-coal  furnaces,  due  to  their  non- 
uniform  feed,  smoke  worse  than  oil.     Powdered  coal,  as  is  well 
known,  must  be  very  dry  to  be  pulverized  and,  when  pulverized 
and  allowed  to  remain  quiet  for  48  hours,  it  cakes  and  requires 
that  a  man  knock  on  the  bins  to  loosen  it.    This  leads  to  uneven 


56  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

combustion  in  the  furnace  with  large  quantities  of  smoke  when 
there  is  a  large  amount  of  coal  coming  through  the  burner  and 
no  smoke  when  the  coal  is  sticking  back  in  the  bins.  No  doubt 
this  is  largely  due  to  inefficient  handling  of  the  feeder  and  burner ; 
even  so,  a  total  absence  of  smoke  cannot  be  claimed  when  such 
conditions  are  met. 

(3)  "A  cheaper  grade  of  coal  may  be  used."  The  best  coal 
for  powdered  fuel  has  a  volatile  content  of  not  less  than  30  per- 
cent, not  more  than  8  percent  ash,  and  1^4  percent  sulphur. 
I  think  the  readers  will  agree  that  coal  meeting  these  specifications 
is  of  no  very  cheap  grade.  Pulverized  coal  must  be  handled  with 
great  care,  for  if  it  is  mixed  with  any  quantity  of  air,  it  is  highly 
explosive,  as  the  records  of  accidents  in  cement  plants  will  prove. 

Another  very  serious  objection  to  powdered  coal,  due  to  the 
incomplete  combustion  of  all  the  coal  ejected  into  the  furnace,  is 
that  this  coal  lies  on  the  work,  and  when  the  work  is  taken  out 
of  the  furnace,  if  not  cleaned  off,  it  is  apt  to  be  hammered  into 
the  work  and  make  flaws  which  later  are  likely  to  be  more  or 
less  serious  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work.  This  is  a  fact 
seen  from  personal  observation  and  cannot  be  denied.  Powdered 
coal  is  not  good  for  small  furnaces,  as  it  requires  too  large  a 
chamber  for  combustion,  and  from  the  experience  of  users  of 
powdered  coal  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  a  combustion  chamber 
separated  by  a  bridgewall  from  the  working  chamber.  It  is  found 
that  the  lesser  of  two  evils  is  to  remove  the  bridgewall  and  blow 
the  powdered  coal  directly  upon  the  work,  which  aggravates  the 
condition  mentioned  above.  If  the  large  furnaces  are  changed 
from  fuel  oil  to  powdered  coal,  there  will  remain  the  small  fur- 
naces, and  especially  the  portable  ones,  which  will  have  to  work 
on  fuel  oil.  Then  there  would  be  the  expense  of  handling  two 
kinds  of  fuel  where  before  there  was  but  one.  The  pulverizing 
plant  is  to  be  considered.  When  it  is  reported  that  it  costs  only 
30  to  50  cents  a  ton  to  perform  a  multitude  of  operations,  I  feel 
that  some  one  has  misplaced  the  decimal  points,  as  will  be  shown 
later  on. 

COMPARATIVE  EFFICIENCIES 

Now  comes  the  debatable  point  of  what  is  the  efficiency  of 
the  furnace  when  using  the  different  fuels.  The  powdered  coal 
advocates  will  claim  that  the  efficiency  should  be  figured  on  the 
B.t.u.  basis.  That  is,  if  a  furnace  burns,  say  22  gallons  of  oil 


COMPARISON  OF  COAL  AND  FUEL   OIL         57 

to  do  a  certain  piece  of  work  and  each  gallon  contains  140,000 
B.t.u.,  3,000,000  B.t.u.  in  all,  it  will  take  3,000,000  B.t.u.  in  coal 
to  do  the  same  work,  but  the  coal  is  cheaper.  If  oil  were  5  cents 
a  gallon,  it  would  take  coal  at  $10  a  ton  to  equal  the  cost ;  so  the 
reader  will  perhaps  agree  that  this  is  not  the  proper  method  of 
comparing  efficiencies,  any  more  than  saying  that  the  cost  of 
gasoline  per  gallon  is  the  operating  cost  of  running  an  automo- 
bile. The  true  way  is  to  measure  the  efficiency  of  the  furnace  by 
the  comparison  of  the  input  and  output,  and  below  are  given 
results  of  some  efficiency  tests  made  for  a  well-known  concern 
contemplating  a  revision  of  its  furnace  practice. 

Powdered    Coal — (Furnace    using   preheated   air    for   com- 
bustion.) 

Furnace  cold  at  60°  F. 

Steel  and  furnace  heated  to  2200°  F. 

Rise  in  temperature,  2140°  F.  • 

By  test,  6.29  Ib.  of  steel  heated  per  pound  of  coal  burned. 

Specific  heat  of  steel,  0.117. 

0.117  X  2140  =  250  B.t.u.  per  Ib.  of  steel. 

250  B.t.u.  X  6.20  =  1572  B.t.u.  output. 

1   Ib.  of  coal  —  14,000  B.t.u.,  input. 

1572  X  100 

Efficiency  = =  11.3% 

14,000 

Fuel  Oil — Same  furnace  with  same  rise  in  temperature  and 
the  same  charge  of  work. 

Heated  8.68  Ib.  of  steel  per  pound  of  oil. 

1  Ib.  of  oil  =  19,400  B.t.u.  input. 

25  B.t.u.  X  6.29  =  1572  B.t.u.  output. 

2170  X  100 

Efficiency  = =11.3% 

19,400 

Another  furnace  using  fuel  oil.     (Not  using  preheated  air.) 

Temperature  rise  from  1200°  to  2200°  =  1000°  F. 

Charge  of  wrought  iron,  2150  Ibs. 

Oil  required,  22  gal. 

2150  Ib.  X  113  B.t.u. —  242,950  B.t.u.  output. 

1  gal.  oil  =  140,000  B.t.u. 

140,000  B.t.u.  X  22  =  3,080,000  B.t.u.  input. 


58  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

242,950  X  100 


3,080,000 
FIRST  COST 

In  making  comparison  as  to  the  relative  first  costs  and  oper- 
ating costs,  let  us  assume  a  plant  now  using  fuel  oil  with  a  con- 
sumption of  50,000  gallons  of  oil  per  month  at  a  cost  of  5  cents 
per  gallon,  delivered  at  the  shop.  (These  estimates  were  made 
for  the  company  already  mentioned.) 

(1)  Fuel  Oil: 

Cost  of  equipment  (storage  tanks  in  place,  auxiliary  pressure 
tanks  in  place,  piping  and  fittings  in  place,  steam  connec- 
tions, furnace  connections,  tank  car  connections,  tank 
pumps  and  air-blast  outfit)  .............................  $21,100 

Contractor's    profit    (15%)  ..................................     3,16:> 

$24,26:, 
Engineering  and  contingencies    (10%)  .......................     2,43.") 

$26,700 

(2)  Powdered  Coal: 

Pulverizing  machinery,  house,  foundations,  trestle  and  track, 
electric  wiring,  conveyors,  walkways,  motors,  burners  and 
controllers  (30),  furnace  bins  (30),  furnace  changes, 
hoods  and  connections,  etc  ..............................  $68,100 

Contractor's    profit    (15%)  ..................................     0,900 


$78,000 
Engineering  and  contingencies  (10%) 7,800 

$85,800 
(2A)  Fuel  Oil  for  Small  Furnaces: 

Tank  in  place,   auxiliary  tank  in   place,   piping  and   fittings, 
furnace    connections,    tank-car    connections,    pumps,    air 

blast,  etc $  8,800 

Contractor's    profit    (15%) 1,300 


$10,100 
Engineering  and   contingencies    (10%) 1,000 


$11,100 
Summary : 

Fuel  Oil   $27,000 

Powdered  coal  with   fuel  oil 97,000 

FUEL  CONSUMPTION  OF  PLANTS 

For  the  fuel-oil  plant,  at  50,000  gallons  of  oil  per  month  and 
140,000  B.t.u.  per  gallon,  7,000,000  B.t.u.  are  consumed  per 
month. 


COMPARISON  OP  COAL  AND  FUEL   OIL          59 

If  we  allow  10  pounds  of  coal  at  14,000  B.t.u.,  equal  to  1  gallon 
of  oil,  \ve  have  500,000  pounds  or  250  tons  of  coal  used  per  month, 
for  the  powdered-coal  plant.  In  addition,  this  plant  consumes 
about  8,000  gallons  of  oil,  the  difference  being  compensated  for 
by  coal  required  in  drying  the  main  fuel  supply." 

TOTAL   COSTS 
Fuel  Oil  Plant  (Estimated  cost,  $27,000)  : 

Fixed  charges  :  Interest  (5%) $  1,350 

Depreciation  (12%)  3,240 

Taxes  and  insurance  ( 1% ) 270  $  4,800 

Operation:  Oil  (50,000x0.05x12) 30,000 

Labor,  1  man  1,000 

Electrical  current,  steam,  air ,. .  500 

Miscellaneous  supplies  200  31,700 


Total  yearly  charge   $36,560 

Powdered  Coal   Plant   (Estimated  cost,  $97,000)  : 

Fixed  charges  :   Interest    (5%  ) $  4,850 

Depreciation    ( 10% )     9,700 

Taxes  and  insurance    ( 1% ) 970      $15,520 

Operation:    Coal    (250x2.50x12) 7,500 

Oil     (6,000x0.05x12) 4,800 

Labor    (1  operator,  2  assistants) 2,000 

Electricity    for   motors 5,000        19,300 

Total    yearly    charge $34,820 

ADVANTAGES  AND  DISADVANTAGES  OF  LIQUID  FUEL 

From  the  foregoing  it  becomes  evident  that  there  are  certain 
advantages  which  oil  fuel  has  over  coal  when  burned  under 
boilers.  These  advantages  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 

(1)  It  is  often  found  that  it  is  desirable  to  push  boilers  far 
beyond  their  normal  rating  for  a  shorter  or  longer  period  of  time. 
Tests  that  have  been  made  by  the  United  States  Navy  Depart- 
ment with  fuel  oil  show  that  the  heat  absorptive  powers  of  boilers 
is  very  great,  and  that  this  pushing  can  be  accomplished  with  only 
a  small  drop  in  efficiency.    In  their  tests  with  fuel  oil  the  evapora- 
tion per  square  foot  of  heat  surface  has  been  increased  from  three 
pounds  of  water  from  and  at  212  degrees  F.  to  fifteen  pounds  of 
water.     During  this  increase  in  rating,  which  is  500  per  cent  of 
the  normal  rating,  there  was  a  loss  in  efficiency  of  only  two  per 
cent.     Boilers  can  be  pushed  twice  as  rapidly  with  oil  as  they 
can  with  coal. 

(2)  The  loss  of  heat  up  the  stack  is  diminished  owing  to 


60  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  smaller  amount  of  air  necessary  for  the  complete  combustion 
of  oil  over  its  equivalent  in  coal. 

(3)  A  more  equal  heat  distribution  in  the  combustion  cham- 
ber is  possible  inasmuch  as  the  fire  box  doors  do  not  have  to  be 
open  for  firing  and  as  a  consequence  there  is  higher  efficiency. 

(4)  The  cost  of  handling  fuel  is  reduced  because  it  is  done 
mechanically  by  pumps  when  fuel  oil  is  used  and  the  reduction 
in  the  number  of  firemen  is  in  the  proportion  of  five  or  six  to  one. 

(5)  A  large  increase  in   steam  capacity   is   possible.     The 
grate  area  absolutely  limits  the  amount  of  coal  that  can  be  burned 
efficiently,  whereas  the  amount  of  oil  that  can  be  burned  efficiently 
is  not  affected  by  the  grate  size.     The  output  of  boilers  can  be 
augmented  by  30  to  50  per  cent  by  substituting  oil  for  coal. 

(6)  Fires  can  be  started  and  stopped  instantly  as  required, 
avoiding  standby  losses,  and  this  required  head  of  steam  can  be 
rapidly  obtained  from  a  cold  boiler  and  can  be  maintained  with 
the  utmost  regularity.    No  fuel  is  lost  through  banking. 

(7)  The  storage  tanks   for   fuel  oil  can  be  located  where 
desired,  while  coal  bins  must  be  near  the  boilers. 

(8)  The  life  of  the  boilers  is  prolonged  because  in  hand- 
fired  coal  furnaces  a  combination  of  stresses  on  the  furnace  plates 
occurs  when  the  furnace  doors  are  frequently  opened. 

(9)  Fuel  oil  can  be  burned  to  smokeless  combustion  with- 
out sparks. 

While  fuel  oil  will  undoubtedly  effect  the  economies  claimed 
for  it,  there  are  several  disadvantages  attendant  on  its  use.  These 
may  be  enumerated  as  follows : 

(1)  Fire  risk  is  increased  and  city  ordinances,  while  becom- 
ing less  stringent,  still  look  with  disfavor  on  its  use. 

(2)  Under  certain  conditions-the  vapor  from  fuel  oil  forms 
an  explosive  mixture  with  air. 

(3)  Nearly  all  fuel  oil  burners  make  an  objectionable  roar- 
ing sound. 

(4)  Auxiliary  apparatus  is  necessary  to  start  an  oil  fire  or 
to  maintain  it,  or  both. 

(5)  Fuel  oil  has  a  tendency  to  leak  through  valves  and  joints 
in  the  svstem. 


CHAPTER  IV 
COLLOIDAL  FUEL 

Mr.  Lindon  W.  Bates,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  New  York 
section  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  has 
the  following  to  say  regarding  Colloidal  Fuel : 

Colloidal  Fuel  is  a  combination  of  liquid  hydro-carbons  with 
pulverized  carbonaceous  substances,  the  components  so  combined 
and  so  treated  as  to  form  a  stable  fuel  capable  of  being  atomized 
and  burned  in  a  furnace.  It  is  made  in  three  forms,  a  liquid, 
a  gel  and  a  mobile  paste.  The  new  composite  is  intended  primarily 
to  be  used  as  fuel.  While  the  designation  "Colloidal"  is  given 
it  because  so  much  of  the  combination  is  in  the  colloidal  state,  the 
name  is  not  scientifically  adequate,  since  much  of  the  solid  com- 
ponent is  not  reduced  to  colloidal  dimensions.  The  title  is,  how- 
ever, descriptive  because  of  the  important  colloid-like  characteris- 
tics of  the  composite.  It  is  liquid  up  to  the  ratios  of  oil  sixty 
percent  and  coal  forty  percent  or  thereabouts.  It  is  a  mobile 
paste  up  to  the  ratio  of  oil  twenty-five  percent  and  coal  seventy- 
five  percent.  All  kinds  of  oils  and  solid  carbons  may  be  used 
The  cheap  coal  breakages  and  wastes  are  all  available.  The  liquid 
is  used  in  the  self-same ,  way  as  oil  fuel  and  with  the  same 
apparatus.  The  coal  particles  are  maintained  in  a  state  of  suspen- 
sion in  the  oil  during  the  time  required  for  the  use  of  the  fuel 
— days,  weeks  or  months.  (See  fig.  16. )a 

It  is  of  interest  to  read  the  results  of  a  special  study  made 
Jan.  3,  1920,  by  Messrs.  Dow  and  Smith,  Chemical  Engineers,  of 
New  York  City,  to  confirm  certain  technical  aspects  of  Colloidal 
Fuel  Grade  15,  a  typical  grade,  containing  38%  mixed  coal  and 
coke,  in  Mexican  Reduced  Oil,  made  in  August,  1919,  and  shipped 
to  the  Imperial  Japanese  Navy  in  Japan : 

"We  have  examined  your  sample  of  colloidal  fuel  to  deter- 
mine whether  electrolites  cause  a  precipitation  of  any  of  the 
suspended  particles. 

"Oil  News,  Feb.  20,  1920.     P.  26. 

61 


62 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


"We  first  tested  your  fuel  in  a  glass  cylinder  to  determine 
whether  or  not  there  was  any  subsidation,  with  the  following 
results : 

"100  cc.  of  the  colloidal  fuel  with  a  depth  of  6"  was  allowed 
to  stand  for  24  hours  at  a  temperature  of  115°  F.  At  the  end 
of  the  24  hours  the  very  top  of  the  fuel  was  analyzed  and  that 
taken  from  the  very  bottom  of  the  cylinder. 


Fuel   Oil    Floating        Colloidal  Fuel  Colloids!   Fuel   Kept 

on  Water  Sealed  Under  Water          Under  7'ater  One  Year 

Unaltered 


j  e. 

Rc»»«rch  Laboratory 
Kodtk   Ptrk 


FIG.   KJ-. — Colloidal   fuel   after  standing  one  year   under  water. 

"The  top  contained  33.8%  insoluble  in  benzole. 

"The  bottom  contained  36.4%  insoluble  in  benzole,  showing 
an  increase  of  2.6  of  coal  particles  in  the  bottom  over  the  top. 
This  subsidation  represents  the  particles  of  coal  that  have  become 
destabilized  since  the  sample  was  manufactured.  It  must  not  be 
inferred  that  a  continuous  and  progressive  subsidation  would  take 
place,  that  is,  the  subsidation  in  the  second  24  hours  would  be  only 
a  fraction  of  a  per  cent,  and  would  merely  represent  the  particles 


COLLOIDAL  FUEL  63 

which  in  that  time  had  become  destabilized.  Some  idea  as  to 
the  quantity  can  be  obtained  from  the  fact  that  this  sample, 
being  five  months  old,  shows  only  2.6%  of  the  particles  had  be- 
come destabilized  in  that  time. 

."Three  lots  of  the  fuel  100  cc.  each  were  then  shaken  up  with 
electrolites,  sodium  chloride,  alum  and  copper  sulphate,  5  grams 
of  the  powdered  electrolite  being  used  to  this  quantity  of  fuel. 
After  the  three  cylinders  had  stood  24  hours  there  was  no  per- 
ceptible difference  in  the  top  and  bottom,  and  therefore,  no 
apparent  precipitation  by  the  electrolites. 

"We  have  examined  your  colloidal  fuel  thinned  with  benzole 
under  the  ultra-microscope  and  find  that  it  is  filled  with  particles 
which  have  the  Brownian  Movement.  We  should  judge  that 
about  half  of  the  particles  visible  showed  this  action  and  they 
varied  in  size  from  those  which  were  quiescent  to  others  which 
had  had  an  active  ran^e  of  0.00325  mm. 

"We  also  passed  the  benzole  solution  of  your  fuel  through 
the  finest  hardened  filter  paper  and  found  that  the  filtrate  con- 
tained numerous  colloidal  particles. 

"We  examined  your  colloidal  fuel  under  the  microscope  and 
measured  the  size  of  the  visible  particles  with  1000  diameter  mag- 
nification. We  noted  several  particles  in  the  field  .001  of  an  inch 
across  and  .002  of  an  inch  in  length.  There  were  numerous  par- 
ticles ranging  from  this  down  to  invisibility.  The  majority  of 
the  particles  appeared  to  be  about  .0001  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 
There  is,  of  course,  no  doubt  but  that  the  particles  diminish  in 
size  to  that  of  molecules,  as  was  shown  by  an  examination  under 
the  ultra-microscope,  and  also  from  the  fact  that  we  know  that 
portions  of  coal  are  soluble  in  mineral  oils." 

Colloidal  Fuel  enjoys  several  special  qualities.  The  calorific 
value  per  unit  volume  is  greater  than  that  of  straight  on  unless 
coals  of  very  low  heat  value  and  specific  gravity  are  incorporated. 
The  reason  is  that  coal  is  heavier  than  oil  though  of  less  calorific 
content  per  pound,  so  that  the  coal  content  most  frequently  raises 
the  calorific  value  per  unit  volume.  The  addition  of  coal  is  hot 
an  adulteration  of  the  oil,  but  it  makes  an  increase  of  the  heat 
units  in  the  resultant  gallon  of  liquid  fuel.  Thus  in  a  composite 
made  up  of  35%  by  weight  of  pulverized  anthracite  coal  of  14,000 
B.t.u.  per  pound  and  1.6  specific  gravity  and  65%  oil  of  18,200 


64  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

B.t.u.  per  pound  and  .96  gravity,  a  gallon  of  the  composite  has 
165,000  B.t.u.,  while  oil  has  146,000  B.t.u.  per  gallon. 

Owing  to  its  coal  content,  Colloidal  Fuel  is  heavier,  while 
oil  is  lighter  than  water.  The  character  of  the  composite  is  such 
that  it  may  be  stored  under  a  water  seal  and  its  fire  may  be 
quenched  with  water.  The  feature  is  of  vast  importance  since 
an  oil  fire  cannot  be  extinguished  with  water,  and  hence  the 
rules  governing  the  use  of  fuel  oil  are  justifiably  drastic.  Not  less 
than  6.4%  of  all  fires  are  caused  by  "Fuel  Oil,"  according  to 
the  records  of  the  National  Fire  Prevention  Association. 

The  Board  of  Standards  and  Appeals  of  New  York  City 
adopted  a  set  of  rules,  which  became  effective  December  1,  1919, 
to  admit  liquid  fuel  into  the  city.  Rule  1  contains  the  following 
provision : 

"The  term  'oil  used  for  fuel  purposes'  under  these  rules 
includes  any  liquid  or  mobile  mixture,  substance  or  compound 
derived  from  or  including  petroleum." 

The  rule  is  phrased  so  as  to  admit  Colloidal  Fuel,  which  is 
a  liquid  or  mobile  mixture  including  petroleum.  Co'.loidal  Fuel 
is  also  in  an  exceptionally  favorable  situation  under  the  Tenta- 
tive Regulations  of  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association, 
adopted  on  November  3,  1919.  These  set  the  standard  in  the 
United  States  and  Canada.  "Oil  burning  equipments  are  those 
using  only  liquids  having  a  flash  point  above  150°  F.  closed  cup 
tester."  The  word  "liquids"  as  selected  includes  the  new  fuel. 
Section  1,  Paragraph  A,  provides:  "For  liquids  of  20°  Baume 
and  below,  tanks  may  be  of  concrete,"  and  Section  4,  Paragraph 
34,  states:  "Where  it  is  necessary  to  heat  oil  in  storage  tanks  in 
order  to  handle  it,  the  oil  shall  not  be  heated  to  a  temperature 
higher  than  40°  F.  below  the  flash  point,  closed  cup."  This 
excludes  several  varieties  of  fuel  oils  which  require  preheating 
over  or  close  to  their  flash  point  in  order  to  flow.  This  is  not  the 
case  in  the  Coloidal  Fuel.  The  Laboratory  of  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  has  certified  that  Grade  13,  a  typical 
example  of  the  new  fuel,  had  a  flash  point  of  266°  F.  and  Grade  li) 
had  273.2°  F.  Grades  13  and  15  were  preheated  in  practice  to 
about  130°  F  and  180°  F.  respectively.  The  apparent  ignition 
temperature  was  779°  F.  and  788°  F.  respectively,  while  neither 
gave  off  volatiles  at  room  temperature  or  at  104°  F.,  nor  gave 


COLLOIDAL  FUEL  65 

evidence  of  spontaneous  heating.  It  is  for  these  reasons  that 
Coloidal  Fuel  enjoys  unusual  safety  features. 

The  combining  of  pulverized  coal  with  oil  and  of  tar  with  oil 
to  make  a  liquid  fuel  has  in  the  past  had  inventive  devotees.  As, 
however,  petroleum  does  not  ordinarily  dissolve  coal  or  tar,  the 
problem  was  how  to  overcome  the  comparatively  rapid  and  uncon- 
trollable separation  or  settling  out  or  sedimentation  of  some  of 
the  components.  The  present  success  was  born  immediately  of 
the  war  efforts  and  was  conceived  to  meet  the  possible  shortage 
of  liquid  fuel  in  the  Allied  Navies. 

The  art  of  suspending  as  colloids  in  liquid  hydrocarbons 
certain  carbonaceous  substances  has  been  long  practised.  Lubri- 
cants are  in  use  made  of  less  than  1%  of  Acheson  graphite  of  2.1 
specific  gravity  reduced  so  that  the  size  of  the  particles  is  about 
75  //,  n  (within  colloidal  limits)  and  suspended  in  oil  by  the  addi- 
tion of  gallotannic  acid.  Colloids  of  charcoal  and  lampblack  are 
known.  It  is  also  reported  that  if  coal  is  reduced  under  high  pres- 
sure or  high  speed  disk-grinding  and  lengthy  trituration  in  oil, 
the  coal  may  be  brought  into  the  state  of  stable  combustible 
colloid. 

Suspension  of  high  percentages  of  particles  above  colloidal 
sizes  is  found  to  be,  however,  quite  without  precedent.  So  also 
the  peptization  of  carbonaceous  matter  in  liquid  hydrocarbons, 
producing  a  stable  composite,  is  new.  No  prior  art  exists  for 
producing  a  stable  fuel  of  oils  having  carbonaceous  matter  as 
natural  impurities,  like  the  asphaltum  and  free  carbon  found  in 
pressure  still  oil.  In  another  field,  that  of  rendering  stable  a 
compound  of  two  or  more  unmixable  or  partly  mixable  liquid 
hydrocarbons  for  fuel  needs,  any  prior  art  is  also  of  little  record. 
Many  liquid  hydrocarbons  will  mix.  Others  and  these  of  the 
important  burning  liquid  hydrocarbons  have  till  this  time  proved 
obdurate  to  union — for  instance,  fuel  oil  and  tar  have  heretofore 
refused  to  mix  or  have  mixed  only  partially.  Emulsions  have 
be.e.n  made  of  non-mixing  liquid  hydrocarbons  for  use  in  creosot- 
ing  and  disinfecting,  but  no  such  emulsions  much  less  suspensions 
concerning  unmixing  liquid  hydrocarbons  for  use  as  fuels  have 
heretofore  been  created. 

Up  to  40%  by  weight  of  pulverized  coal  can  be  suspended 
with  60%  by  weight  of  oil,  making  liquid  Colloidal  Fuel.  Up  to 
75%  of  carbon  can  be  incorporated  in  the  mobile  pastes.  Mobile 


66  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

gels  can  be  made  from  either  the  liquids  or  the  pastes.  Colloidal 
Fuel  may  be  a  combination  of  any  two  or  more  of  the  forms.  It 
will  be  understood,  therefore,  that  between  these  states  in  varying 
blends  and  degrees  of  load,  a  large  number  of  fuels  either  liquid 
or  mobile,  may  be  produced.  Further,  several  of  the  forms  have 
a  natural  tendency  to  transform  themselves.  For  instance,  liquid 
Colloidal  Fuel  stabilized  for  liquidity  during  a  definite  period  of 
say,  days  or  months,  tends  later  to  gel  from  the  bottom  of  the 
container  up.  At  that  stage,  the  viscosities  of  the  lower  or  gel 
stratum  will  be  different  from  that  of  the  thinner  upper  stratum. 
The  fuel,  nevertheless,  has  not  given  up  the  influence  of  its  treat- 
ment. It  remains  atomizable,  even  though  the  gel  be  denser.  In 
both  layers  and  in  the  intermediate  layers  also,  all  the  constituents 
are  present  and  synchronize  in  burning.  The  gel  thus  formed  is 
easily  restored  to  a  liquid  state  by  heat  or  stirring  or  pumping. 
Sometimes  even  a  tap  upon  the  wall  of  the  container  will  restore 
pristine  liquid  form.  The  colloidalizing  treatment  while  arti- 
ficially stabilizing  the  composite  promotes  also  a  gel  formation. 
Conversely,  the  creation  of  a  gel  even  in  early  stages  helps  to 
stabilize  the  compound  since  particles  with  more  difficulty  precipi- 
tate in  a  gel. 

Colloidal  Fuel  is  a  composite  whose  particles  are  in  three 
states  of  dispersion — solution,  colloid  and  suspension.  They  give 
the  characteristics  of  the  three  conditions.  Some  of  the  particles 
pass  through  a  filter — many  do  not.  Many  are  visible  and  meas- 
urable under  microscopic  inspection.  Others  are  not.  Some 
show  active  Brownian  movement ;  others  show  slower  movement ; 
others  no  such  motion  at  all.  In  considering  the  changes  and 
stabilization  under  the  treatment  of  Colloidal  Fuel  the  division 
of  the  carbon  surfaces  must  be  noted.  A  cube  of  coal  one  centi- 
meter on  each  side  exposes  a  surface  of  six  square  centimeters. 
Such  a  cube  pulverized  so  that  85%  passes  through  a  200  mesh 
screen  exposes  surfaces  of  about  1872  square  centimeters.  The 
ratio  of  surface  to  volume  has  been  multiplied  over  300  times. 
Such  a  cube  reduced  to  colloidal  size  (or  .1/x  diameter)  develops 
a  surface  of  60  square  meters — a  multiplication  of  one  hundred 
thousand.  In  Colloidal  Fuel,  most  of  the  carbon  particles  are  not 
reduced  to  colloidal  sizes.  Many  remain  much  above  these  limits 
and  above  the  colloidal  borderland. 

For  the  manufacture  of  the  new  fuel,  the  coal  should  be 
reduced  so  that  about  95%  passes  through  a  100  mesh  screen  and 


COLLOIDAL  FUEL  67 

85%  through  a  200  mesh  screen.  A  finer  pulverization,  while  of 
advantage,  is  not  essential  to  the  process.  Coarser  particles  than 
those  cited  above  may  be  temporarily  or  partly  stabilized,  serving 
sufficiently  well  certain  fuel  uses.  For  the  reduction,  mechanical, 
electric  or  chemical  means  may  be  used,  but  an  ordinary  coal 
pulverizing  ball  or  tube  mill  is  most  economical. 

To  carry  the  load  of  a  high  percentage  of  carbon  at  normal 
and  working  temperatures  the  base  oil  employed  should  be  in 
a  certain  range  of  viscosities  which  the  treatment  secures.  While 
a  lower  viscosity  does  not  hinder  the  creation  of  Colloidal  Fuel, 
it  lessens  the  load  which  the  liquid  hydrocarbon  can  stably  carry. 
If  the  product  sought  is  to  be  a  gel  or  paste,  the  initial  viscosity 
is  of  less  concern.  If  the  liquid  medium  provided  is  of  over 
high  viscosity  to  produce  a  liquid  fuel  with  the  percentage  desired 
of  load,  a  "cut  back"  can  be  introduced  to  lower  viscosity.  This 
"cut  back''  can  be  of  another  suitable  hydrocarbon.  If  the  me- 
dium provided  is  of  over  low  viscosity,  the  process  is  reversed 
and  the  viscosity  is  raised  by  introducing  a  liquid  hydrocarbon 
which  adjusts  the  density.  Several  other  ways,  of  course,  exist 
for  securing  the  right  viscosity,  such  as,  for  instance,  heat  and 
emulsification. 

With  the  right  quality  of  fixateur  or  peptizing  agent,  stability 
is  most  readily  and  satisfactorily  secured  through  its  use.  Vary- 
ing the  amount  introduced  makes  adjustment  simple.  In  general, 
the  shorter  the  time,  the  less  the  degree  of  stability  desired,  the 
lower  the  temperature,  the  less  the  load  and  the  finer  the  grinding, 
so  much  less  fixateur  or  peptizing  agent  is  needed.  If  a  gel  or 
paste  is  required,  less  of  the  agent  is  essential  than  if  a  liquid  is 
sought.  The  introduction  of  more  agent  than  is  demanded  for 
liquid  stabilizing  begets  a  tendency  to  early,  complete  and  con- 
sistent gellification.  The  amount  of  the  agent  therefore  intro- 
duced, must  be  a  matter  of  knowledge  from  experimentation.  It 
must  be  such  a  quantity  and  quality  as  will  secure  adequate 
stability  at  the  temperature  of  storage  and  preheater.  In  practice, 
virtually,  the  maximum  of  a  good  quality  of  fixateur  which  has 
ever  been  employed  to  secure  a  stable  liquid  is  an  amount  which 
adds  2%  by  weight  of  the  essential  substances  to  the  fuel.  The 
minimum  producing  an  appreciable  result  is  about  .1%.  Ordi- 
narily between  l/^%  to  \l/2%  is  used.  Higher  percentages  of  cer- 
tain peptizers  or  stabilizers  are  required  than  of  others.  If 
gaseous  means  are  used  these  percentages  do  not  hold.  Between 


68  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

these  outer  limits  the  quality  of  fixateur  and  peptizer  for  par- 
ticular products  has  been  very  accurately  determined  by  experi- 
ence and  the  effects  recorded  of  different  percentages  blended 
with  various  ratios  and  kinds  of  components  of  the  Colloidal 
Fuel. 

Colloidal  Fuel  carrying  up  to  40  percent  of  carbon  is  prac- 
tically equivalent  to  the  class  of  heavy  oil  in  relation  to  handling 
to  the  preheater  stage.  At  68°  F.  its  viscosity  will  hardly  be 
below  65°  Engler,  except  when  only  the  carbon  particles  found 
in  pressure  still  oil  are  stabilized.  The  viscosity  ordinary  will 
range  between  160°  and  350°  Engler,  depending  upon  the  com- 
ponents and  other  factors.  At  higher  temperatures  that  obtain 
in  the  preheater,  it  behaves  as  do  the  lighter  class  of  oils.  Col- 
loidal Fuel  is  really  only  a  laden,  stabilized  oil  and  the  problem 
of  burning  both  is  largely  the  same.  Viscosity  is  under  perfect 
control.  The  installations  for  burning  oil,  burn  liquid  Colloidal 
Fuel  without  any  material  change.  Some  slight  modification  is 
required  for  burning  the  pastes  and  gels  since  there  must  be  suffi- 
cient pressure  to  carry  the  fuel  to  the  atomizer.  If  the  gel  is 
broken  up  by  pumping  or  if  it  becomes  liquid  in  the  preheater, 
pressure  for  conveying  it  alone  is  needed.  Existing  mechanical 
or  steam,  or  air  oil  burners  are  adapted  to  Colloidal  Fuel.  Several 
varieties  have  been  used. 


CHAPTER  V 

DISTRIBUTION  AND  STORAGE 

Oil  refineries  are  built  at  points  strategically  located  with  re- 
spect to  production  and  markets.  From  the  refineries  fuel  oil  is 
delivered  to  a  station  located  in  the  center  of  the  industrial  dis- 
trict to  be  served  and  it  is  delivered  from  the  refineries  to  these 
central  stations  by  water  or  by  rail.  Many  companies  supply  fuel 
oil  to  countries  lying  overseas.  To  these  countries  fuel  oil  is 
transported  by  ocean-going  tankers  and  oil  barges.  There  were 
in  May,  1920,  93  steam  tankers  aggregating  more  than  one  mil- 
lion deadweight  tonnage  building  in  American  shipyards  for  pri- 
vate companies.  All  but  two  of  these  ships  burn  fuel  oil  under 
their  boilers  for  power  and  these  two  are  equipped  with  Diesel 
engines. 

Many  of  the  tankers  now  in  use  carry  fuel  oil  on  outward 
voyages,  but  return  to  the  United  States  laden  with  some  other 
bulk  liquid.  The  Philippine  Vegetable  Oil  Company,  for  example, 
now  has  in  operation  two  such  tankers  operating  between  San 
Francisco  and  Manila.51  The  two  vessels  now  in  operation  are 
the  "Nuuanu"  and  the  "Katherine."  They  are  specially  equipped 
for  carrying  petroleum  products,  either  bulk  or  case  oil,  for  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  from  the  Richmond  refinery  to  Hong- 
kong and  returning  via  Manila,  where  a  cargo  of  cocoanut  oil  is 
taken  for  delivery  at  the  storage  tanks  of  the  Philippine  Vegetable 
Oil  Company  at  San  Francisco.  The  "Nuuanu"  was  the  first 
tanker  to  be  placed  in  operation  in  this  special  service  and  has 
recently  made  her  third  round  trip,  each  time  carrying  petroleum 
oil  to  Hongkong  and  returning  via  Manila,  where  a  cargo  of 
cocoanut  oil  was  taken  on.  The  auxiliary  motor  ship  "Nuuanu" 
(See  fig.  17)  was  before  her  conversion  to  an  oil  tanker  the  iron 
sailing  vessel  "Highland  Glen"  of  the  following  dimensions: 
Length  over  all,  211  feet;  breadth,  34  feet,  and  depth,  19  feet  6 
inches.  The  power  plant  consists  of  a  320-b.  horsepower  model 
"M-ll"  Bolinder  engine,  the  machinery  being  placed  in  an  unused 
part  of  the  ship  and  not  interfering  with  the  existing  bulkheads. 

"Oil  News,  December  5,  1919,  P.  28,  C.  W.  Geiger. 

69 


70 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


This  vessel  has  been  able  to  make  a  speed  of  over  seven  knots, 
loaded,  in  ordinary  weather  without  the  assistance  of  sails.  On 
her  first  trip  from  San  Francisco  to  Manila  via  Hongkong  the 
time  occupied  in  making  the  voyage  to  Manila  was  45  days.  She 


FIG.   17. — The   oil   tanker   "Nuuanu." 


arrived  in  San  Francisco  with  a  cargo  of  about  1,100  tons  of  bulk 
cocoanut  oil,  making  the  trip  from  Manila  in  46  days.  So  well 
satisfied  with  the  work  of  the  "Nuuanu,"  the  Philippine  Vegetable 
Oil  Company  purchased  the  former  British  ship  "County  of 


DISTRIBUTION  AND  STORAGE 


71 


Linlithgow,"  renamed  her  the  "Katherine"  and  converted  her  into 
a  tanker  for  the  same  service.  The  "Katherine"  was  equipped 
with  many  features  not  included  on  the  "Nuuanu,"  but  these  new 
features  are  now  being-  installed  on  the  "Nuuanu."  The  "Kather- 
ine" can  carry  about  2,600  tons.  Both  vessels  carry  sufficient  fuel 
to  make  the  round  trip.  Fuel  is  carried  in  two  tanks,  one  tank 
being  located  in  the  engine  room  and  the  other  in  the  cofferdam 
separating  the  cargo  tanks  from  the  engine  room.  The  oil  is  de- 
livered from  these  tanks  to  the  engine  by  duplex  pumps  operated 


FIG.  18. — An  Oil  Barge  on   San  Francisco   Bay 

by  steam.  The  "Nuuanu"  carries  a  crew  of  30,  including  the 
chief  engineer,  first  and  second  engineers,  two  wipers,  captain, 
first  and  second  mate  and  the  usual  number  of  sailors. 

For  delivering  fuel  oil  to  vessels  either  in  the  stream  or  at 
the  dock  a  very  extensive  fleet  of  oil  barges  is  operated  on  San 
Francisco  Bay  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  Shell  Oil  Com- 
pany, Union  Oil  Company,  and  the  Associated  Oil  Company.  In 
Oil  News,  September  20,  1919,  page  11,  the  following  account  of 
the  operation  of  these  barges  is  given  by  C.  W.  Geiger: 

"A  large  fleet  of  barges  is  maintained  by  the  Standard  Oil 
Company.  Its  units  are  principally  barges  with  the  steam  tug 
Standard  No.  1  in  constant  attendance,  and  working  with  them 


72  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

are  the  power  barges  Benecia  and  Contra  Costa.  The  power 
barges  are  manned  by  both  day  and  night  crews,  and  are  ready, to 
make  fuel  oil  deliveries  around  the  harbor  at  any  time  during  the 
entire  twenty-four  hours.  The  convenience  of  this  service  to 
steamship  operators  can  readily  be  imagined,  and  the  company 
has  materially  added  to  its  fuel  oil  business  because  of  it.  The 
barge  Contra  Costa  is  propelled  by  a  gasoline  engine  and  has  a 
capacity  for  carrying  7,500  barrels  of  oil  in  her  tanks.  The 
Benecia,  which  is  also  propelled  by  a  gasoline  engine,  has  a 


FIG.  19. — Delivering  fuel  oil  to  a  mail  steamer. 

capacity  for  carrying  2,200  barrels.  The  carrying  capacity  of  the 
remaining  barges  is  as  follows:  Barge  No.  1,  4,500  barrels;  barge 
No.  2,  800  barrels ;  barge  No.  3,  2,000  barrels ;  barge  No.  4,  5,500 
barrels;  barge  No.  5,  which  operates  on  the  river,  2,000  barrels 
(See  fig.  18)  ;  barge  No.  6,  650  barrels;  barge  No.  7,  5,000  bar- 
rels; barge  No.  8,  2,200  barrels.  The  following  barges  operate 
on  the  rivers :  San  Jose,  stern  wheel  steamer,  500  barrels ;  Petro- 
leum No.  3,  stern  wheel  steamer,  1,500  barrels.  The  river  trade 
demands  a  boat  drawing  not  more  than  five  feet  of  water,  and 
here  the  stern  paddle-wheel  type  of  boat  is  necessary  for  carrying 
cargo  and  towing  light-draft  barges.  Owing  to  the  shallow  water 
and  many  snags  in  the  river,  a  propeller  is  out  of  the  question. 
Cargoes  of  fuel  oil  as  high  as  15,000  barrels  are  taken  on  by 
some  of  the  trans-Pacific  steamers  (See  fig.  19).  All  of  the  four 
oil  companies  mentioned  maintain  large  storage  tanks  ad- 
jacent to  the  water  front  at  San  Francisco,  with  receiving 


DISTRIBUTION  AND  STORAGE 


73 


and  discharge  pipes  leading  to  the  docks.  In  addition  to 
supplying  oil  to  the  steamers  in  the  bay,  these  barges  de- 
liver oil  from  the  refineries  operated  by  the  various  oil  companies 
in  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco,  to  these  oil  storage  tanks  ad- 
jacent to  the  water  front.  These  tanks  supply  fuel  oil  to  the 
smaller  vessels  that  tie  up  at  the  oil  docks.  The  Standard  Oil 
and  the  Shell  Oil  each  maintain  such  storage  tanks  at  the  northerly 
end  of  the  water  front,  from  which  point  the  numerous  lumber 
schooners  and  fishing  boats  are  supplied.  At  the  southerly  end 


FIG.  20. — Pump  for  loading  barges  with  fuel  oil. 

of  the  water  front,  in  the  vicinity  of  16th  and  17th  streets,  such 
storage  stations  are  maintained  by  the  Standard  Oil,  Union  Oil, 
and  the  Associated  Oil  Companies.  In  addition  to  supplying  oil 
to  the  smaller  vessels,  these  storage  stations  supply  the  oil  trucks 
that  deliver  oil  through  the  City  of  San  Francisco.  The  Shell 
Oil  Company  operates  barges  which  take  on  oil  at  the  loading 
station  at  Martinez  and  are  towed  to  the  S-an  Francisco  water 
front  by  a  steam  tug  used  for  this  exclusive  purpose.  During  the 
busy  seasons  gasoline  tugs  are  rented  from  the  local  launch  com- 
panies. These  barges  have  a  carrying  capacity  ranging  from 
1,030  barrels  to  3,000  barrels.  The  barges  are  all  of  wooden  con- 
struction, being  built  especially  for  this  type  of  service.  Barge 
No.  4  is  148  feet  in  length,  35  feet  in  width  and  6  feet  10  inches 
in  depth.  She  draws  5  feet  6  inches  when  loaded  and  3  feet  6 
inches  light.  Barge  No.  3  is  78  feet  in  length,  23  feet  in  width, 
and  6  feet  10  inches  in  depth,  and  draws  6  feet  6  inches  when 


74 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


loaded  and  2  feet  6  inches  when  light.  Barge  No.  1  is  116  feet 
in  length,  32  feet  in  width  and -10  feet  2  inches  in  depth,  and  draws 
7  feet  when  loaded  and  3  feet  6  inches  light.  She  has  a  carrying 
capacity  of  2,950  barrels  of  oil.  The  250  horsepower  steam  tug 
Priscilla  was  built  especially  for  tending  these  barges.  They  are 
operated  on  the  tides,  being  towed  from  Martinez  when  the  tide 
is  going  out  aud  returned  with  the  incoming  tide.  Approximately 
140,000  barrels  of  oil  are  handled  monthly  by  these  barges.  Barge 
No.  4  is  equipped  with  a  gasoline-operated  generator  which  pro- 


FIG.  21. — Derrick  for  handling  heavy  hose  on  barge. 

vides  electric  current  for  lighting,  which  greatly  facilitates  night 
operations." 

The  railroads  are  among  the  principal  users  of  fuel  oil  in 
this  country.  For  filling  the  fuel  storage  tanks  of  the  railroads 
the  oil  is  transported  in  tank  cars.  Mr.  Robert  Clarke,  Jr.,  de- 
scribes the  development  of  the  tank  car  as  follows  :a  "In  1865 
the  car  tank,  mounted  on  a  railroad  flat  car,  made  its  appearance. 
Mr.  Lawrence  Myers — who  was  represented  as  the  patentee  of 
this  type  of  tank  on  wheels, — called  it  the  "Rotary  Oil  Car."  A 
number  of  the  first  tanks  on  cars  were  constructed  of  iron,  but 
the  majority  were  built  of  heavy  pine  planks,  a  material  more 
rt '  readily  obtainable  ajid  lower  in  cost.  In  shape  these  tanks  were 


a.     The   Petroleum  Handbook,  Andros,  p.  151. 


DISTRIBUTION  AND  STORAGE 


75 


practically  the  same  as  the  small  iron-hooped  wooden  tank  in  use 
•at  the  wells,  being  round  and  of  smaller  diameter  at  the  top  than 
the  bottom  and  holding  from  40  to  50  barrels  each.  On  each  flat 
car  two  of  these  tanks  were  mounted — one  at  each  end  over  the 
trucks — making  the  capacity  of  the  car  between  80  and  100  bar- 
rels. The  first  of  these  ''Rotary  Oil  Cars"  arrived  in  Titusville, 
Pa.,  on  November  1,  1865,  where  it  received  a  cargo  of  oil  at 


FIG.  22.     A  Tank  Car. 

the  Miller  farm,  the  terminus  of  the  first  successful  pipe  line  from 
Pithole.  Miller  farm  was  located  four  miles  below  Titusville  on 
the  banks  of  Oil  Creek,  Pa.  This  car  was  the  property  of  the 
Eagle  Transportation  Company  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  who  owned 
the  patent  rights  and  who  proposed  to  build  and  operate  a  tank 
line  on  all  railroads  for  the  transportation  of  crude  and  refined 
oils.  With  customary  progressiveness  we  find  the  builders  and 
users  of  tank  cars  soon  making  improvements  in  design  and  con- 
struction of  the  original  car.  Dillingham  and  Cole,  a  firm  of 
machinists  with  shops  located  at  Titusville,  Pa.,  in  1866  received 
a  contract  for  fitting  60  tanks  on  cars  for  the  Oil  Creek  railroads — 
now  a  part  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  System — -with  a  rather 


76  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

ingenious  gate-valve  or  cock  that  could  not  be  opened  without 
having  a  wrench  that  was  especially  made  for  the  purpose.  These 
tanks  were  constructed  of  iron  and  mounted  on  flat  cars  at  each 
end  over  the  trucks,  similar  to  those  of  the  Eagle  Transportation 
Company.  The  capacity  of  these  cars  was  about  90  barrels.  This 
new  method  of  shipping  was  indeed  a  step  in  the  right  direction, 
for  it  eliminated  a  very  considerable  loss  of  oil  resulting  from 
leakage  in  transit,  reduced  the  liability  of  serious  conflagrations 
and  did  away  with  the  necessity  of  a  return  of  thousands  of  bar- 
rels to  the  producer,  besides  eliminating  cooperage  charges.  Until 
1870  this  type  of  car,  in  which  the  iron-hooped  wooden  tank  was 
employed,  was  used  extensively  in  transporting  crude  oil  to  mar- 
ket. In  the  late  sixties,  however,  the  forerunner  of  the  present 
type  of  tank  car  was  introduced — a  design  of  car  in  which  a 
horizontal  cylindrical  tank  replaced  the  two  small  wooden  ones 
The  first  of  these  cars  was  shipped  to  the  Oil  Creek  region  in 
1868  and  sidetracked  at  the  Boyd  farm  for  loading.  A  radical 
change  was  made  in  the  designing  of  these  new  tanks  in  that 
they  were  fitted  with  a  dome  which  allowed  the  oil  to  expand 
without  injury  to  the  tank.  These  cars  had  a  capacity  of  80  to  90 
barrels.  Later  this  was  increased  to  100  barrels,  which  became 
the  standard  for  that  period.  The.  advantages  of  this  new  type 
of  car  were  quickly  recognized  by  both  oil  and  railroad  men ;  in 
fact,  its  adoption  was  so  general  that  by  the  end  of  1872  the  ma- 
jority of  the  old  type  of  cars  had  disappeared.  About  May  1, 
1872,  the  Oil  Creek  and  the  Lake  Shore  Railroad  companies 
issued  orders  that  after  that  date  none  of  the  old  type  of  tank 
cars  would  be  accepted  for  transportation  over  their  roads.  With 
few  exceptions,  this  ruling  was  generally  adopted  by  other  rail- 
ways, although  even  as  late  as  1876  they  were  still  accepted  by  the 
Allegheny  Valley  Railroad,  extending  from  Oil  City  to  Pittsburgh. 
By  1880  the  last  of  the  early  wooden  tank  cars  had  disappeared 
from  service.  It  is  particularly  true  of  American  progressiveness 
and  business  acumen  that  the  introduction  of  a  new  process  or 
new  method  of  doing  something  in  one  field  is  soon  applied  with 
equal  success  to  other  fields  and  so  it  has  been  with  the  tank  car. 
Today  there  are  thousands  of  tank  cars  in  service  carrying  other 
products  than  petroleum  and  its  by-products.  The  Master  Car 
Builders'  Association  state  in  their  specifications  covering  the 
design  and  construction  of  tank  cars  that  a  tank  car  is  "any  car 
to  which  one  or  more  metal  tanks,  used  for  the  transportation  of 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  77 

liquids  or  compressed  gases,  are  permanently  fastened,"  and  in 
order  that  these  tank  cars  may  be  designed  and  constructed  to 
meet  the  service  requirements  of  a  wide  range  of  products  they 
have  designated  that  there  shall  be  five  classes  of  tank  cars,  classi- 
fied as  follows : 

"Class  1. — Tank  cars  for  general  service,  with  steel  under- 
frames  or  without  underframes,  built  prior  to  1903. 

"Class  2. — Tank  cars  for  general  service,  with  steel  under- 
frames, or  without  underframes,  built  between  1903  and  May  1, 
1917. 

"Class  3. — Tank  cars  for  general  service,  built  after  May  1, 
1917. 

"Class  4. — Tank  cars  for  the  transportation  of  volatile  in- 
flammable products  whose  vapor  pressure  at  a  temperature  of 
100°  F.  exceeds  ten  pounds  per  square  inch,  built  after  May  1, 
1917. 

"Class  5. — Insulated  tank  cars  of  specially  heavy  construc- 
tion, built  after  January  1,  1918,  for  the  transportation  of  liquid 
products  whose  properties  are  such  as  to  involve  danger  or  loss 
of  life  in  event  of  any  leakage  or  rupture  of  the  tank." 

The  importance  of  good,  strong,  sound  and  thorough  con- 
struction in  tank  car  design  cannot  be  overestimated.  Upon  these 
factors  depends  the  life  and  efficient  service  of  the  car.  A  poorly 
designed  and  constructed  tank  car  is  not  only  a  menace  to  the 
railroads  hauling  them,  but  also  the  shipper,  consignee  and  the 
industrial  centers  through  which  the  car  may  pass. 

Fig.  22  shows  a  tank  car. 

In  general  the  storage  tanks  erected  by  the  railroads  are 
steel  cylinders.  The  size  of  a  storage  tank  will  naturally  be  a 
little  in  excess  of  a  multiple  of  6,000  gallons,  for  the  reason  that 
6,000  gallons  is  the  capacity  of  a  regulation  tank  car.  So,  then, 
storage  tanks  will  properly  have  capacities  greater  than  6,000, 
12,000,  18,000  and  so  forth,  gallons.  Fig.  23  shows  a  20,000-gal- 
lon  fuel  oil  tank  along  the  Mexican  Railway ,a  and  Fig.  24  shows 
locomotive  loading  tanks  along  the  lines  of  the  United  Railways 
of  Havana.b 

a.  Reprinted  by  permission  of  Anglo-Mexican   Petroleum   Co.,   Ltd. 

b.  Courtesy  of  Sinclair's  Magazine. 


78 


•FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


For  the  storage  of  fuel  oil  at  small  industrial  plants  and  at 
hotels,  apartment  houses,  and  residences,  the  steel  tank  has  been 
in  general  use.  Mr.  S.  D.  Rickard,  Consulting  Engineer,  Wayne 
Oil  Tank  &  Pump  Company,  gives  the  following  advice  concern- 
ing storage  tanks : 

"Too  great  care  canot  be  used  in  the  selection  of  the  oil 
storage  tank,  or  tanks.  It  is  a  great  deal  more  difficult  to  con- 


FIG.  23. — Storaee  tank  along  the  Mexican  Railway. 
(Courtesy  of  Anglo-Mexican   Petroleum  Co.) 

struct  an  oil-tight  tank  than  to  construct  a  tank  simply  for  the 
storage  of  water.  It  is  very  difficult  and  sometimes  impossible 
to  repair  a  leaking  tank,  and  a  great  deal  of  oil  may  be  lost  before 
the  leak  is  discovered.  All  tanks  should  be  inspected  and  labeled 
by  the  Underwriters'  Laboratories  of  the  National  Board  of  Fire 
Underwriters. 

Fuel  oil  storage  tanks  should  be  cylindrical  in  shape  and 
placed  underground  so  that  the  top  of  the  shell  is  at  least  two  feet 
below  ground.  These  tanks  should  be  of  sufficient  capacity  to 
allow  for  a  working  supply  in  case  deliveries  are  delayed,  and  so 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  79 

that  tank  cars  can  be  entirely  emptied  as  soon  as  they  are  received, 
avoiding  demurrage  charges.  Where  shipments  are  to  be  received 
in  single  carload  lots,  a  12,000-gallon  tank  is  the  smallest  size  that 
should  be  installed.  However,  many  installations  embody  two 
or  more  tanks  varying  in  capacities  from  8,000  to  25,000  gallons. 
It  should  be  specified  that  the  tank  be  fitted  with  all  of  the 
pipe  flanges  and  the  manhole  at  one  end  of  the  shell  on  top.  In 
this  way  it  is  possible  to  build  a  box  with  a  trap  door  over  one 
end  of  the  tank  whereby  all  pipe  connections  and  the  manhole 
may  be  easily  gotten  at. 


FJG.    24.      Locomotive    Loading    Tanks    Along   Lines    of   the    United    Railways 

of    Havana. 
(Courtesy  of   Sinclair's   Magazine.) 

It  is  good  practice  to  fit  a  fuel  oil  tank  with  the  following 
flanges  and  manhole:  one  10"  x  16"  manhole,  one  3l/2"  suction 
flange,  one  4"  fill  flange,  one  iy2"  vent  flange,  one  \l/2"  return 
pipe  flange,  and  one  l/2r'  indicator  flange. 

Every  fuel  oil  tank  should  be  constructed  with  internal  steam 
coils  of  proper  design.  Although  it  might  be  possible  to  obtain 
a  light  oil  at  the  time  the  tank  is  installed,  it  may  become  neces- 
sary at  any  time  to  burn  a  heavy  oil,  which  would  require  heating. 

Each  storage  tank  should  be  fitted  with  a  tank  gallonage 
indicator.  These  indicators  show  at  a  glance  the  contents  of  the 
tank.  They  may  be  placed  inside  of  the  nearest  building,  outside 
of  the  building  against  the  wall,  directly  over  the  tank,  or  on  the 
side  of  aboveground  tanks." 


80 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


When  it  is  impossible  to  place  the  main  storage  tanks  below 
ground  or  below  the  level  of  the  burners,  a  small  5  or  10  barrel 
reservoir  tank  should  be  placed  underground  below  the  main 
storage.  This  reservoir  tank  is  then  fed  by  gravit^  from  the 
overhead  tanks.  Just  inside  the  small  reservoir  tank  is  placed  a 
float  valve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  25.  This  valve  closes  whenever  the 
oil  in  the  small  tank  reaches  a  certain  level.  The  suction  and 
return  pipes  should  run  from  this  small  underground  tank  in 
the  usual  manner.  In  this  way  the  danger  of  flooding  a  building 
with  oil  is  avoided.  Fig.  26  shows  a  typical  steel  storage  tank  for 
fuel  oil. 

The  Butler  Manufacturing  Company,  Kansas  City,  made  the 
following  quotations  as  of  July  1,  1920,  for  storage  tanks,  f.  o.  b. 
Kansas  City : 

HORIZONTAL  TANKS  SUITABLE  FOR  UNDERGROUND  USE  BUT 
WITHOUT  UNDERWRITER'S  LABEL. 


i 

Size 

Capacity 

Weight 

Gage  Material 

Dealer's  Price 

Retail  Price 

3x5 

260  gal. 

289 

12  gage  BA 

$  59.80 

$  74.70 

3>^x  5 

350 

352 

12 

67.40 

84.26 

4x5 

460 

416 

12 

78.60 

98.20 

4x6 

560 

473 

'    12 

84.05 

105.75 

5x5 

725 

565 

12 

94.20 

117.50 

5x6 

870 

635 

12 

102.00 

127.40 

5x7 

1015 

705 

12 

109.10 

136.40 

5x8 

1160 

775 

12 

116.70 

145.90 

6x6 

1250 

814 

12 

121.50 

151.83 

6x8 

1675 

980 

12 

139.00 

173.80 

6     xlO 

2100 

1175 

12 

156.90 

196.15 

These  horizontal  tanks  will  be  equipped  with  4"  fill  opening,  I"  vent,  2" 
outlet;  also,  each  tank  will  be  given  one  coat  of  asphaltum  paint. 

VERTICAL  WELDED  STORAGE  TANKS. 


Size 

Capacity 

Weight  Ibs. 

Gage 

Dealer's  Price 

Retail  Price 

5x4 

575  gal. 

453 

12BA 

$  95.40 

$119.40 

6x6 

1250 

747 

12 

129.30 

161.63 

7x6 

1700 

891 

12 

150.75 

185.50 

7x8 

2280 

1083 

12 

179.00 

224.00 

8x8 

2975 

1288 

12 

208.30 

260.40 

9x9 

4240 

1640 

12 

244.00 

305.00 

openings   and   plug,    a    return 
2"    outlet    tap    in    side   near 


These    vertical    tanks   have    cone    cover  with    4"    fill 
bend   and    nipple    screwed    into    plug    for    use    as   vent, 
bottom,  one  coat  of  red  paint  to  be  applied. 

On  all  tanks  quoted  above  blue  annealed  steel  is  furnished,  which  is  especially 
adapted  for  welding.  All  seams  will  be  carefully  welded  and  the  tanks  will  be  thor- 
oughly tested  under  air  pressure  before  leaving  the  factory  to  insure  that  they  are 
oil-tight.  If  any  tanks  when  first  filled,  are  found  to  be  leaking,  necessary  repairs 
will  be  made  when  the  oil  is  removed. 

In  the  event  tanks  of  greater  capacity,  heavier  material,  or  tanks  bearing  under- 
writer's label  are  required,  quotations  will  be  made  on  receipt  of  exact  requirements. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE 


81 


It  is  only  recently  that  concrete  has  been  considered  a  suit- 
able material  for  making  containers  for  fuel  oil.  The  knowledge 
of  the  desirability  of  concrete  for  oil  storage  tanks  was  acquired 
during  the  war  through  the  practical  elimination  of  steel  plates. 

Mr.  H.  P.  Andrews,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  American 
Concrete  Institute,  states  that  reinforced  concrete  has  proved  to 
be  satisfactory  in  many  ways,  if  intelligently  handled.  As  it  is 
necessary  to  install  most  fuel  oil  reservoirs  underground,  steel 
tanks  rust  if  not  protected.  Concrete  can  be  designed  better  to 
resist  exterior  stresses,  as  hydrostatic  or  earth  pressures.  It  has 


Frto  LIME  Fnon  flpove  QgoutoTgrm 


FIG.    25.     Reservoir    Tank    with    Automatic    Float    Valve. 
(Courtesy  of  Wayne  Oil  Tank  and  Pump  Company) 


the  dead  weight  to  better  resist  upward  hydrostatic  pressure  in 
soils  which  often  are  filled  with  water.  It  does  not  attract  light- 
ning like  steel,  nor  if  properly  constructed  is  it  affected  by  elec- 
trolysis. It  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat  and  cold,  thus  retarding 
evaporation  of  oil  in  summer,  and  also  retarding  the  lowering  of 
the  temperature  of  the  oil  in  winter,  an  advantage  in  pumping. 
In  case  of  a  conflagration  the  oil  is  much  safer  in  a  concrete  con- 
tainer than  in  steel.  But,  as  previously  stated,  oil  reservoirs  of 
concrete  must  be  designed  correctly,  the  concrete  proportioned 
correctly  and  mixed  and  placed  correctly  in  order  to  get  satis- 
factory results.  And  by  satisfactory  results  it  is  meant  that  there 
shall  be  no  leakage  or  seepage  when  built  or,  thereafter,  to  cause 


82  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

fire  hazards  or  financial  loss.  When  these  necessities  have  been 
provided  for,  reinforced  concrete  reservoirs  will  contain  fuel  oil 
of  a  consistency  up  to  40°  B.,  and  practically  all  fuel  oils  are  below 
this,  the  Mexican  oils  having  a  specific  gravity  as  low  as  16°  B. 
For  the  lighter  oils,  including  kerosene,  gasoline  or  benzine,  some 
provision  should  be  made  for  a  lining  of  special  material,  and  the 
writer  understands  that  the  U.  S.  Shipping  Board  has  been 
making  some  extended  experiments  along  this  line.  The  design 
and  the  location  of  a  fuel  oil  reservoir  may  be  considered  from 
various  standpoints.  (1)  Location.  The  reservoir  should  be 
located  a  safe  distance  from  inflammable  structures  as  far  as  pos- 
sible consistent  with  pumping  requirements,  covered  with  at  least 
18  in.  of  earth,  if  near  buildings,  to  decrease  fire  hazards  and  also 
to  minimize  oil  evaporation.  If  distant  from  buildings  it  should 


FIG.    26.     Steel    Storage    Tank    for    Fuel    Oil. 
(Courtesy  Wayn£  Oil  Tank  and  Pump  Company.) 

be  at  least  half  underground,  and  if  possible,  the  excavated  ma- 
terial should  be  used  in  banking  up  around  it.  (2)  Size.  The 
reservoir  should  be  limited  in  size  for  two  reasons :  First,  the 
necessity  of  not -exceeding  a  day's  working  limit  in  the  operation 
of  pouring  concrete  so  that  joints  between  operations  may  be 
eliminated ;  and  secondly,  so  that  in  case  of  an  accident  or  fire  in 
any  reservoir,  that  too  much  oil  in  storage  will  not  be  involved. 
This  size  limit  should  not  be  over  300,000  gallons  under  most 
conditions,  and  the  majority  of  contractors  have  not  the  facilities 
to  construct  properly  a  reservoir  of  this  capacity.  (3)  Shape. 
The  reservoir  should  be  circular  in  shape,  the  better  and  more 
directly  to  take  care  of  involved  stresses  and  to  avert  danger  of 
tensile  or  temperature  cracks.  (4)  It  should  be  so  proportioned 
and  designed  as  to  limit  the  number  of  pouring  operations  of 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE 


83 


84  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

concrete,  so  as  to  avoid  joints  between  these  operations.  (5) 
Care  should  be  taken  to  provide  for  all  exterior  stresses,  such 
as  hydrostatic  pressure  from  ground  water,  earth  pressure  on 
walls,  and  roof  if  reservoir  is  buried,  and  also  to  avoid  as  far 
as  possible  concentration  of  loads  on  walls  or  footings.  Where 
joints  are  absolutely  necessary  they  should  be  so  protected  that 
there  will  be  no  leakage  through  them.  Regarding  hydrostatic 
pressure,  while  engineers  have  found  from  tests  that  this  pressure 
in  soils  is  only  about  50  per  cent  of  the  full  head  of  water,  it 
is  not  safe  to  design  for  stresses  less  than  the  full  head,  as  any 
deflection  in  the  concrete  admitting  a  film  of  water  between  the 
earth  and  the  concrete  will  produce  the  full  hydrostatic  pressure. 
(6)  To  so  design  the  reservoir,  piping  and  vents  as  to  comply 
with  municipal  regulations  and  insurance  requirements.  (7)  To 
protect  temporarily  or  permanently  concrete  surfaces  so  that  oil 
will  not  come  in  immediate  contact  with  them  if  concrete  is 
less  than  six  weeks  old.  (8)  To  so  design  the  false  work  for 
holding  concrete  temporarily  in  place  that  it  will  not  fail  or  be 
distorted  while  placing  concrete.  It  is  especially  necessary  to 
provide  for  the  firm  holding  of  wall  forms,  as  the  pressure  of 
several  feet  of  concrete  poured  quickly  as  a  monolith  is  intense, 
and  any  give  of  the  forms  after  the  concrete  has  obtained  its 
initial  set  breaks  up  the  crystals  already  formed,  allows  expansion 
of  the  concrete  mass,  with  resultant  porosity  and  loss  of  strength. 
(9)  To  design  the  concrete  so  that  it  will  resist  all  exterior 
stresses  to  which  it  is  subjected  and  so  that  it  will  be  oil-proof. 
And  one  of  the  principal  features  of  this  design  is  to  make  the 
walls  of  circular  reservoirs  in  tension,  sufficiently  thick  so  that 
the  ultimate  strength  of  the  concrete  in  tension  will  not  be  ex- 
ceeded. It  is  not  meant,  of  course,  to  leave  out  the  steel  rein- 
forcement so  that  the  stress  will  theoretically  be  borne  by  the 
concrete,  but,  nevertheless  it  will  actually  be  borne  by  it  unless 
some  unforeseen  weakening  of  the  concrete  should  throw  it  upon 
the  steel.  An  extended  investigation  by  the  writer  on  high 
circular  concrete  standpipes  for  water  showed  that  if  the  concrete 
in  the  wall  was  stressed  beyond  its  elastic  limit  or  ultimate 
strength,  which  is  practically  identical,  vertical  hair  cracks  will 
appear  of  sufficient  width  to  admit  water  into  the  body  of  the 
concrete.  This  ultimate  tensile  strength  in  a  1:1^:3  concrete 
from  tests  made  for  the  writer  at  the  Watertown  Arsenal  was 
203  Ibs.  per  square  inch.  Where  the  concrete  is  in  large  sectional 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  85 

areas  and  reinforced,  this  tensile  strength  probably  will  be  some- 
what higher.  If  a  stress  not  exceeding  150  Ibs.  per  square  inch 
is  allowed  in  tension  there  will  be  no  danger  of  these  vertical 
cracks  appearing.  (10)  To  design  the  reinforcement  so  that  it 
will  take  care  of  all  interior  and  exterior  stresses  and  with  fittings 
to  hold  it  rigidly  in  place  while  concrete  is  being  poured.  Steel 
in  tension  in  walls  should  not  be  stressed  over  10,000  Ibs.  per 
square  inch  to  conform  with  insurance  companies'  requirements. 
Personally,  the  writer  does  not  think  that  it  is  necessary  to  figure 
the  stress  as  low  as  this,  under  usual  conditions,  having  satis- 
factorily constructed  many  reservoirs  using  a  stress  of  14,000 
pounds,  but  of  course,  the  lower  stress  is  an  additional  safeguard 
against  inferior  workmanship  by  inexperienced  contractors  and 
against  any  decrease  in  bond  strength  due  to  oil  penetration  of 
concrete.  It  is  probably  unwise  to  depart  radically  from  in- 
surance companies'  recommendations.  For  other  parts  of  the 
reservoir  the  recommendations  of  the  Joint  Committee  on  Con- 
crete, Plain  and  Reinforced,  should  be  followed.  All  reinforcing 
rods  in  concrete  exposed  to  oil  should  be  of  a  deformed  section 
for  better  bending  value.  To  carry  out  these  requirements  neces- 
sitates the  employment  of  competent  engineers,  experienced  in  the 
work,  to  make  the  design  and  specifications  and  to  superintend 
construction.  The  concrete  should  be  no  leaner  than  a  mix  com- 
posed of  1  part  of  cement,  \l/2  parts  of  sand  and  3  parts  broken 
stcne  or  gravel.  To  this  mix  should  be  added  a  "densifier."  Hy- 
drated  lime  has  been  found  economical  and  satisfactory  for  this 
purpose,  using  ten  Ibs.  of  dry  lime  to  each  bag  of  cement.  The 
stone  must  be  hard  and  clean,  trap  rock,  granite  or  gravel  being 
the  best  material.  The  sand  must  be  free  from  any  deleterious 
matter;  and  should  be  well  graded.  Cement  should  be  of  an 
established  quality.  The  concrete  should  be  deposited  contin- 
uously in  concentric  layers  not  over  12  ins.  deep  in  any  one  place. 
No  break  in  time  of  over  thirty  minutes  is  permissible  in  de- 
positing concrete  during  any  one  operation,  and  if  any  delay 
occurs,  the  previous  surface  must  be  chopped  up  thoroughly  with 
spades  before  the  next  layer  of  concrete  is  deposited. 
The  different  operations  in  pouring  are : 

1.  The  pouring  of  floor  and  footings. 

2.  The  pouring  of  entire  wall. 

3.  The  pouring  of  roof. 


86  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

In  small  reservoirs  the  wall  forms  may  be  supported  so  that 
the  footings,  floor  and  wall  may  be  poured  in  one  continuous 
operation.  An  approved  joint  or  dam  must  be  made  between 
the  floor  and  the  wall.  When  the  materials  are  obtained  they 
should  be  mixed  by  a  plant  of  sufficient  size  and  power  to  carry 
out  each  separate  pre-arranged  operation  without  danger  of  delay 
during  the  process.  The  materials  should  be  mixed  at  least  2 . 
minutes  in  the  mixer,  using  just  enough  water  to  obtain  a  plastic 
mix  without  excess  water  coming  to  the  surface  after  concrete 
is  deposited,  and  a  measuring  tank  should  be  used  so  that  the 
amount  of  water  may  be  kept  uniform.  The  concrete  when  de- 
posited in  forms  should  be  well  spaded  by  at  least  four  competent 
laborers  who  are  not  afraid  to  use  their  muscle  in  compacting 
the  concrete  thoroughly  and  working  out  the  trapped  air  bubbles. 
Reinforcement  should  be  of  round  deformed  bars  conforming 
to  "Manufacturer's  Standard  Specifications  for  Medium  Steel." 
These  bars  should  be  bent  or  curved  true  to  templates  carefully 
placed  in  their  predesigned  location  and  rigidly  maintained  there 
by  mechanical  means.  No  laps  should  be  less  than  40  diameters 
and  no  two  laps  of  adjacent  rods  should  be  directly  opposite  each 
other.  The  forms  should  be  of  a  good  material,  strongly  made 
and  braced,  or  held  in  place  by  circumferential  bands  so  that  no 
distortion,  allowing  displacement  of  concrete  during  its  initial 
set,  is  possible.  The  surface  of  the  floor  should  be  trowelled 
smooth  as  soon  as  it  can  be  done  properly.  If  all  previously 
named  precautions  are  taken,  there  should  be  no  defects  in  the 
wall  to  correct.  Concrete  mixed  and  placed  as  recommended 
herein  is  practically  oil-tight,  but  as  oils  are  somewhat  detrimental 
to  fresh  concrete,  it  is  advisable  to  put  on  an  interior  wash  or 
coating  to  protect  the  fresh  concrete  from  the  action  of  the  oil 
for  such  a  time  as  may  be  necessary  for  it  to  cure  and  harden 
sufficiently.  Silicate  of  soda,  while  not  a  permanent  coating,  has 
been  used  satisfactorily  for  this  purpose  according  to  this  speci- 
fication for  oil-proofing.  The  surface  of  the  floor  and  the  interior 
surface  of  the  wall  are  to  be  coated  with  silicate  of  soda  of  a 
consistency  of  40°  B  when  applied  as  follows :  First  coat.  One 
part  of  silicate  of  soda  and  three  parts  of  water,  applied  with 
brush  and  all  excess  liquid  wiped  off  with  cloth  before  drying. 
Second  coat.  One  part  silicate  of  soda  and  two  parts  water 
applied  as  above.  Third  coat.  One  part  of  silicate  of  soda  and 
one  part  water,  applied  with  brush  and  allowed  to  dry.  Fourth 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  87 

coat.  Applied  same  as  third.  The  dome  roof  is  economical  to 
construct  where  earth  covering  is  not  required  and  where  all 
concentrated  loads  on  walls  are  eliminated,  which  might  tend  to 
produce  unequal  settlement  with  resultant  cracks.  The  inverted 
dome  at  the  bottom  gives  additional  storage  capacity  with  only 
increased  cost  of  excavation  and  lessens  height  of  wall  thus  re- 
quiring less  shoring  of  banks  in  loose  soils.  It  allows  a  better 
drainage  of  the  reservoir  than  a  flat  floor,  and  better  resists  up- 
ward exterior  pressure.  The  recommended  maximum  dimensions 
for  this  type  of  reservoir  are  as  follows :  Diameter,  60  feet ; 
height  of  wall,  12  feet,  rise  of  roof  dome,  l/6th  to  ^th  dia ; 
drop  of  inverted  dome  not  over  l/10th  dia.  The  floor  and  roof 
should  be  reinforced  both  circumferentially  and  radially  to  pro- 
vide against  temperature  and  other  stresses.  There  are  many 
details  which  might  be  added,  but  the  information  given  is  in- 
tended to  cover  the  principal  features."  Fig.  27  shows  a  typical 
reinforced  concrete  fuel  oil  reservoir. 

The  Portland  Cement  Association  in  its  Bulletin  "Concrete 
Tanks  for  Industrial  Purposes"  is  authority  for  the  statement 
that  at  present  there  is  in  the  United  States  concrete  tank  storage 
for  over  790,000,000  gallons  of  oil.  Concrete  tanks  for  oil  storage 
are  not  an  experiment,  but  their  use  for  such  purposes  has  rapidly 
developed  during  the  past  three  years  because  of  unusual  con- 
ditions during  the  war.  There  are  examples  of  concrete  oil 
tanks  that  have  15  years  of  service  to  their  credit,  thus  proving 
their  success  in  this  field.  The  economy  and  advantages  of  the 
concrete  oil  tank  have  established  it  as  a  standard  type  of  oil 
storage  container,  particularly  as  relates  to  the  needs  of  industrial 
plants  using  fuel  oil.  Although  such  tanks  can  be  built  above 
ground,  the  greatest  advantages  are  derived  from  placing  them 
underground  and  covering  with  two  or  three  feet  of  earth.  Under 
such  conditions  the  stored  oil  is  maintained  at  a  fairly  even 
temperature,  losses  from  evaporation  of  the  lighter  oils  are  re- 
duced, and  greater  protection  to  tank  contents  is  afforded  against 
fire  from  lightning  or  other  causes ;  therefore,  the  insurance  on 
surrounding  buildings  is  not  increased  because  of  the  presence 
of  stored  oil.  Insurance  on  contents  of  the  tank  is  also  less.  In 
addition,  there  is  the  advantage  that  the  storage  container  does 
not  occupy  valuable  yard  space  necessary  for  plant  operation  or 
other  storage,  and  the  tank  may  be  placed  at  any  convenient  loca- 
tion, even  under  a  railroad  sidetrack  or  plant  driveway.  So  far 


88 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


as  it  has  been  possible  to  collect  data,  the  following  list,  correct  to 
August  1,  1919,  shows  industrial  concerns  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  using  from  1  to  11  concrete  oil  storage  tanks  or 
reservoirs  and  the  capacity  of  the  storage  listed : 


ARIZONA 


Company 
Queen    Laundry 


Location 
.Bisbee 


Year 
Built 
1918 


ARKANSAS 

Ozark   Refining   Co Ft.    Smith  1912 

Lignite    Products    Co Camden  1917 

CALIFORNIA 

Associated    Oil    Co San  Francisco  1910-11 

Union    Oil    Co.    of    Cal San      Louis    Obispo    

Kern  Trading  &  Oil   Co Bakersfield  1913-14 

Standard   Oil  Co San    Francisco  1906-15 

Union    Oil    Co Port  Richmond  

General    Petroleum    Corp Los    Angeles  1915 

So.   California  Edison  Co Los    Angeles  1911 

W.    H.    Jameson ...Corona  1913 

Indian    Valley    Ry.    Co Paxton  1917 

Libby,  McNeill  &  Libby San    Francisco  1916 

Napa   Valley    Electric    Co St.    Helena  1912 

CONNECTICUT 

American     Brass     Co Torrington  and 

Waterbury  1918 

New   Departure    Mfg.    Co Bristol  1919 

Lawton    Mills    Corp Plainfield  1919 

Yale  &  Towne   Mfg.   Co Stamford 

French    River    Textile    Co Mechanicsville  1919 

Versailles    Sanitary    Fibre    Co Versailles  1918 

Fafnir    Bearing    Co New  Britain  1919 

FLORIDA 

St.   Johns   Electric   Co St.   Augustine  1919 

Southern    LTtilities    Co Miami  1919 

Southern    Utilities    Co Arcadia  1919 

St.    Augustine    Ice    Co St.    Augustine  1919 

Southern    Utilities    Co Palatka  1919 

Southern    Utilities    Co Ft.   Lauderdale  1919 

Southern    Utilities    Co Ft.   Myers  1919 

Southern    Utilities    Co Okeechobee  1919 

Southern    Utilities    Co Tarpon    Springs  1919 

Southern    Utilities    Co Titusville  1919 

ILLINOIS 

Symington     Chicago     Corp Chicago  1918 

American    Steel    Foundry    Co Granite   City  1918 

Cribben    &    Sexton    Co Chicago  1918 

Pressed    Steel   Car  Co Hegewisch  1918 

Rockford  Drop  Forge  Co Rockford  1912-18 

Parlin   &   Orendorff  Co Canton  1918 

Crescent   Forge  &   Shovel   Co Havana  1917 

Keystone   Steel   &  Wire  Co Peoria  1919 

Galesburg    Coulter    Dis.    Co Galesburg  1918 

Greenlee  Bros.   &  Co Rockford  1918 

A.    Hershel   Mfg.    Co Peoria  1919 

Mt.  Vernon   Car   Mfg.   Co Mt.    Vernon  1918 


Capacity 
Gallons 
18,500 

260,000 
12,000 


337,500,000 

190,000,000 

100,000,000 

60,000,000 

40,000,000 

21,000,000 

2,000,000 

110,000 

32,000 

16000 

10,000 


1,320,000 

500,000 

225,000 

117,000 

110,000 

72,000 

36,000 

53,000 
50,000 
30,000 
28,000 
28,000 
23,000 
23,000 
23000 
23,000 
23,000 

750  000 

350,000 

300,000 

250,000 

175,000 

125,000 

110,000 

85,000 

63,000 

63,000 

55,000 

50,000 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE 


89 


Year  Capacity 

Company                                                   Location  Built  Gallons 

Electric    Wheel     Co Quincy  1918  43,000 

Octigan  Drop   Forge   Co Chicago  1918  15,000 

Whiting    Fdry.    &    Equip.    Co Harvey  1918  13,000 

INDIANA 

Muncie    Gear    Works Muncie  1918  24,000 

IOWA 

Charles  City   Gas   Co., Charles    City  1916  30,000 

Moline    Oil    Co Clinton  1917  20,000 

KANSAS 

Garden   Sugar  &  Land   Co Garden    City  1907  2,000,000 

Howard    Oil    Co Mt.   Hope  1910  18,000 

Williamson     Milling    Co Clay    Center  1909  18,000 

KENTUCKY 

Neha    Refining    Co Lexington  1918  150,000 

MAINE 

Goodall    Worsted    Co Sanford  1919      .  600,000 

Great   Northern    Paper   Co Madison  1919  380,000 

Wyandotte    Worsted    Co Waterville  1919  115,000 

MASSACHUSETTS 

Pacific    Mills     Lawrence  1919  1,300,000 

American    Steel    &    Wire    Co Worcester  1918  1,000,000 

Merrimac    Chemical   Co Boston  1918  690,000 

Manufacturing   Plant    Everett  1918  650,000 

Thomas    Plant    Shoe    Co Roxbury  1917-18  160,000 

Holtzer-Cabot    Electric    Co Boston  1918  100,000 

Osgood   Bradley   Car  Co Worcester  1918  100,000 

Christian    Science    Pub.    Co Boston  1918  70,000 

Pentucket    Mills Haverhill  1919  70,000 

MICHIGAN 

Studebaker    Corp Detroit  1918  825,000 

American  Car  &  Foundry   Co Detroit  1918  400,000 

Chicago   Ry.   Equipment   Co Detroit  228,000 

Detroit   Steel    Castings    Co Detroit  1918  200,000 

Timken-Detroit    Axle    Co Detroit  1918  200,000 

Packard  Motor  Car  Co Detroit  1918  127,000 

Detroit   Steel  Products  Co Detroit  1918  100,000 

Great    Lakes    Eng.    Works Detroit  1918  100,000 

Detroit   Steel    Casting   Co Detroit  1918  78,000 

Bower   Roller   Bearing    Co Detroit  1918  75,000 

Briscoe    Motor    Corp Jackson  1918  60,000 

Buhl   Malleable   Co Detroit  1918  35,000 

Russell   Axle    Co Detroit  1918  34,000 

Detroit    Twist    Drill    Co Detroit  1918  20,000 

MINNESOTA 

City   of   Redwood   Falls Redwood    Falls  20,000 

MISSOURI 

Curtis  &  Co.  Mfg.  Co St.    Louis  1917  1,500,000 

No.    American    Refining    Co Sheffield  840,000 

Commonwealth    Steel    Co St.    Louis  1918  240,000 

Laclede    Steel    Co St.    Louis  1918  240,000 

American    Brake    Co St.    Louis  1918  65,000 

Kuhne    Bros.    Merc.    Co Troy  1918  18,000 

NEBRASKA 

Wells-Abbott-Nieman     Co Schuyler  1917  70,000 

So.    Nebraska    Power    Co Superior  1916  26,000 

T.    F.    Stroud    &    Co Omaha  1913  12,000 


90 


FUEL    OIL   IN   INDUSTRY 


NEVADA 

Year  Capacity 

Company                                                        Location  Built  Gallons 

Desert   Power   &   Mill    Co Millers  1907  145,000 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE 

Clearmont    Paper    Co Clearmont  1917  215,000 

NEW  YORK 

Titanium    Alloy    Mfg.    Co Niagara    Falls  1917  110,000 

Bossert    Corp Utica  1918  60,000 

NORTH    DAKOTA 

Steele    Light    &    Power    Co Steele  1917  16,000 

OHIO 

Federal    Glass    Co Columbus  1917  450,000 

Aluminum    Castings    Co L. .  .Cleveland  1918  115,000 

Wellman-Seaver-Morgan     Cleveland  1918  103,000 

American    Brass    Co Columbus  1918  100,000 

Bonney-Floyd    Co Columbus  1917  90,000 

Shaw-Kendall    Engineering    Co Lakewood  1918  88,000 

City   Light  &   Water   Plant Bryan  1918  40,000 

Star    Aluminum    Co Ashland  1918  20,000 

Globe    Mach.    &    Stamp.    Co Cleveland  1917  14600 

OKLAHOMA 

Muskogee    Refining    Co Muskogee  1917  180,000 

Oilton    Refining    Co Oilton  1915  100000 

Anadarko    Cotton    Oil    Co Anadarko  1915  65,000 

Baker     Cotton     Oil     Co Hobart  32,000 

Shawnee   Gas   &    Electric   Co Shawnee  1909  30000 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Westinghouse    Air    Brake    Co Wilmerding  1917-18  250,000 

Amer.    Brake    Shoe    &    Fdry.    Co .Erie  1918  182,000 

Steel    Car    Forge    Co Ellwood    City  1918  150,000 

Union    Switch    &    Signal    Co Swissvale  1918  150,000 

Westinghouse   Elec.    &   Mfg.    Co E.    Pittsburgh  1918  125,000 

General   Electric   Co Erie  1918  100,000 

Valley   Forging  Co Verona  1918  86,000 

H.    H.    Robertson Cambridge  1918  80,000 

Pittsburgh    Seamless    Tube    Co Beaver    Falls  1918  70,000 

Fort    Pitt    Spring    Co McKees   Rocks  1918  52,000 

Morris    Bailey    Steel    Co Wilson  1918  50,000 

Erie    City    Iron    Works ^ Erie  1918  30,000 

Mathews    Gravity    Carrier    Co Ellwood    City  1918  27,000 

Union    Iron    Works.... Erie  1918  20,000 

Neely   Nut  &  Bolt   Co Pittsburgh  1918  21,000 

RHODE  ISLAND 

International   Braid    Co Providence  1918  600,000 

Revere   Rubber   Co Providence  1918  400,000 

Gorham    Mfg.    Co Providence  1918  305,000 

Peace    Dale   Mfg.    Co. Peace   Dale  1918  300,000 

Lonsdale    Mfg.    Co Lonsdale  1918  280,000 

Jenckes     Spinning    Co Pawtucket  1918  150,000 

National   India   Rubber   Co Bristol  1919  150,000 

Alsace    Worsted    Co Woonsocket  1919  110,000 

Budlong    Rose     Co Auburn  1919  100,000 

Esmond    Mills     Esmond  1919  100,000 

Rosemont    Dyeing    Co Woonsocket  1919  92,000 

American    Silk    Spinning    Co Providence  1919  80,000 

Montrose    Worsted    Co Woonsocket  1919  45,000 

TENNESSEE 

Davidson   Co.   Turnpike   Bd Nashville  1916  50,000 


DISTRIBUTION    AND    STORAGE 


91 


. Joyton 
.Winters 
.  Harrisburg 
.Athens 
.Seymour 


TEXAS 
Company  Location 

Empire    Gas    &    Fuel    Co Gainesville 

San   Antonio  Gas  &  Elec 

Lone    Star    Brewing    Assn San   Antonio 

Joyton    Cotton    Oil   Co 

Winters   Cotton   Oil   Co 

Texas   Portland   Cement   Co 

Athens  Brick  &  Tile   Co 

Seymour    Cotton    Oil   Co 

VERMONT 

Wallingf ord    Mfg.    Co Wallingford 

Jones    &    Lamison    Mach.    Co Springfield 

WISCONSIN 

Nevvport-Hydro-Chemical    Co Carrollville 

National    Brake    &    Electric    Co Milwaukee 

Fairbanks,    Morse    &    Co Beloit 

State    of    Wisconsin 

Geo.    H.    Smith   Steel   Cast.    Co Milwaukee 

Dane     County     

Appleton    Water    Works Appleton 

Milwaukee    Forge    Machine    Co Milwaukee 

CANADA 

Leaside    Munition    Co.,    Ltd Leaside 

Motor    Trucks,    Ltd Brantford 

British     Munitions,     Ltd Montreal 

Empire  Mfg.  Co.,  Ltd London,    Ont. 

Steel    Co.    of    Canada Swansea 

Massey    Harris    Co.,    Ltd Toronto 

International  Harvest  Co.  of  Canada,  Ltd.  .Hamilton,    Ont. 

Verity    Plow    Co.,    Ltd Brantford 

Cockshutt    Plow    Co.,    Ltd Brantford 

D.   A.   Brebuer  Co.,   Ltd Hamilton,     Ont. 

Can.    Shovel    &    Tool    Co.,    Ltd Hamilton,     Ont. 

Dominion    Sheet   Metal   Corp Hamilton,     Ont. 


Year 
Built 

1918 

1903-12 


1909 

1917 
1906 

1913 
1918 

1918 

1918 

1916-17 

1917-18 

1918 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1918 
1918 
1918 
1917 
1918 
1918 
1917 
1918 
1918 
1918 
1918 
1918 


Capacity 

Gallons 

15,000,000 

600,000 

228,000 

55;000 

50,000 

44,000 

27,000 

12,000 

100,000 
30,000 

850,000 

265,000 

175,000 

146,000 

73,000 

50,000 

2^,000 

18,000 

280,000 
120,000 
100,000 
70,000 
65,000 
45,000 
42,000 
42,000 
30,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 


The  France  &  Canada  Oil  Transport  Co.,  Aransas  Pass, 
Tex.,  has  two  55,000-bbl.  cylindrical  oil  storage  tanks  of  rein- 
forced concrete,  110  ft.  inside  diameter  and  33  ft.  deep,  which 
are  probably  the  first  concrete  oil  tanks  of  such  large  size  to  be 
built  entirely  above  ground.  While  in  many  locations  economy 
would  be  secured  by  building  the  tanks  wholly  or  partly  below 
ground,  thus  getting  the  advantage  of  added  insulation  as  well 
as  the  outside  earth  pressure,  these  tanks  were  located  on  sand 
foundation  not  more  than  1  ft.  above  water  level  and  construction 
above  ground  was  necessary.  The  nature  of  the  location  re- 
quired that  the  tanks  be  supported  by  piling,  which  would  have 
been  equally  necessary  for  steel  tanks.  Each  tank  is  supported 
on  some  600  piles  cut  off  at  water  level  and  capped  by  a  heavy 
reinforced  concrete  slab  covering  the  entire  area.  The  walls 
were  built  with  sliding  forms.  Because  of  the  intense  summer 
heat  in  that  section  of  the  country  and  the  desire  for  absolute 
insurance  against  temperature  cracking,  it  was  decided  to  make 


92  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  walls  double  by  constructing  an  outer  shell  separated  from 
the  main  wall  by  a  5-in.  air  space.  This  decision  was  reached 
because  no  former  experience  was  available  as  a  guide  for  de- 
signing an  entirely  above  ground  oil  tank  of  this  size.  As  the 
result  of  experience  with  these  tanks,  however,  the  engineers  are 
inclined  to  believe  that  the  outer  wall  could  be  omitted  with 
safety.  The  tanks  were  treated  on  the  inside  with  an  oilproof 
coating,  for  while  they  are  built  to  hold  a  low  gravity  oil,  it  was 
felt  that  they  might  be  used  for  very  light  oils  at  some  future 
date  and  it  would  be  wise  to  provide  for  this  possibility.  The 
tank  roof  supported  by  concrete  beams  and  columns  is  a  concrete 
slab  covered  with  1  ft.  of  sand.  A  gas-tight  expansion  joint  is 
provided  where  roof  joins  the  walls.  Each  tank  was  surrounded 


FIG.   :8.     Concrete  Oil  Tanks  Which   Without  Damage  Withstood  a 
Hurricane   and   Flood. 

with  an  earthen  dike  to  conform  with  insurance  requirements  and 
equipped  with  the  usual  filling  and  discharge  lines,  swing  pip.1 
and  other  fittings.  During  the  severe  Gulf  hurricane  of  Sept.  14, 
1919,  the  tanks  were  partly  filled  with  oil,  each  containing  about 
30,000  bbls.  The  engineer  who  designed  and  built  them  says : 
"The  water  rose  some  15  ft.  accompanied  by  a  98-mile  wind.  The 
storm  was  ihe  'most  severe  ever  experienced  on  the  Texas  coast, 
which  means  much.  Our  tanks  were  absolutely  unprotected 
from  the  full  fury  of  the  hurricane.  Apparently  heavy  timbers 
or  possibly  parts  of  the  pipe  lines  were  driven  against  the  east 
tank,  and  slight  damage  to  the  outer  wall  in  one  place  resulted. 
So  severe  was  the  storm  that  all  of  the  surrounding  sand  was 
washed  away,  and  at  places  near  and  even  under  the  tanks,  there 
is  now  from  10  to  18  ft.  of  water  (See  fig.  28).  The  pipe  lines 
were  demolished,  valves  broken  off  of  the  tanks,  and  the  oil  was 
lost  but  the  concrete  tanks  remained  intact.  Had  these  tanks 
been  of  any  material  but  concrete  they  would  have  been  de- 
stroyed." ' 


DISTRIBUTION    AND    STORAGE  93 

Mr.  James  B.  Brooks,a  General  Superintendent  of  Buildings 
and  Construction,  for  the  Westinghouse  Air  Brake  Company, 
refers  to  the  company's  fuel  oil  tanks  at  Wilmerding,  Pennsyl- 
vania as  follows :  "During  September,  1917,  the  Westinghouse 
Air  Brake  Co.  constructed  four  concrete  fuel  oil  tanks  at  Wil- 
merding, Pa.,  and  during  July,  1918,  it  constructed  six  more. 
The  tanks  were  15  ft.  wide,  25  ft.  long  and  9  ft.  deep  with  a 
capacity  of  25,000  gals,  each,  or  a  total  capacity  amounting  to 
250,000  gals.  The  company  has  similar  concrete  tanks  at  Swiss- 
vale,  Pa.,  with  300,000  gals,  capacity,  built  like  those  at  Wil- 
merding. The  concrete  in  the  tanks  was  made  from  one  part 
cement,  two  parts  sand  and  four  parts  pea  gravel.  The  following 
method  of  construction  was  adopted.  Excavating  was  done  by 
crane  and  grab  bucket  and  after  squaring  up  the  bottom,  the 
reinforcing  bars  were  placed  for  the  floor  slab,  with  ends  of  bars 
bent  up  90  deg.  so  as  to  enter  the  wall.  These  rods  were  wired 
together  and  held  in  place  by  being  suspended  from  2  by  8-in. 
timbers  placed  several  inches  above  the  floor  level.  The  entire 
floor  slab  for  one  tank  was  then  poured,  well  tamped  and  finished 
rough.  No.  16-gage  galvanized  iron  strip,  6  in.  wide,  riveted 
and  soldered  at  joints  so  as  to  make  a  continuous  band,  was  then 
imbedded  in  the  floor  slab  to  a  depth  of  3  in.  and  placed  so  as 
to  be  on  the  center  line  of  wall  and  projecting  into  it  3  in.  The 
outside  wall  forms  were  then  set  up  after  which  the  reinforcing 
rods  were  placed,  wired  together  and  fastened  to  the  form.  In 
the  meantime  the  forms  and  timbers  for  suspending  rods  for 
floor  slab  No.  1  were  being  set  up  and  used  for  floor  slab  No.  2, 
the  joint  between  the  slabs  being  filled  with  pitc'h.  The  inside 
forms  for  wall,  beams,  and  top  slab  were  then  set  up  and  rein- 
forcing rods  placed  for  beams  and  top  slab.  Extreme  care  was 
taken  in  cleaning  the  slab  at  bottom  of  wall  form,  and,  before 
pouring  walls,  a  mixture  of  one  part  cement  and  one  part  sand 
was  placed  in  bottom  of  form  and  around  galvanized  strip  so  as 
to  make  a  tight  joint.  The  side  walls,  beams,  top  slab  and  man- 
hole are  all  cast  in  one  piece,  the  only  joint  in  the  concrete  being 
between  the  floor  and  bottom  of  wall.  The  inlet  pipe  cast  into 
the  top  slab  near  the  manhole  is  a  4-in.  nipple  and  the  outlet 
pipe  is  a  2l/2  in.  brass  pipe  threaded  its  entire  length,  offering  a 
rough  surface  for  concrete  to  adhere  to.  The  forms  were  re- 
moved in  3  or  4  days  and  the  entire  inside  of  tank  was  given  a 

a.     Engineering  World,   March,    1920,   p.   278. 


94  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

coat  of  plaster  5/2 -in.  thick,  made  up  of  one  part  cement  and  one 
part  sand,  troweled  to  a  very  smooth  surface.  The  tanks  are 
placed  in  a  double  row  with  a  3-ft.  covered  passageway  between 
them,  with  manholes  and  ladders  giving  access  to  pipe  and  valves 
leading  from  tanks.  Owing  to  the  possibility  of  a  slight  weaken- 
ing of  the  concrete  due  to  the  action  of  the  oil,  the  tanks  are 
heavily  constructed  and  reinforced.  Allowance  was  made  for  a 
weakening  of  10  or  15  per  cent.  The  top  of  tank  is  designed 
for  a  uniform  loading  of  400  Ibs.  per  sq.  ft.,  thus  allowing  this 
space  to  be  used  for  the  storing  of  miscellaneous  material.  The 
tops  of  tanks  are  18  in.  below  yard  grade  and  are  covered  with 
cinder  so  as  to  keep  down  excessive  change  in  temperature.  The 
tanks  are  filled  from  tank  cars  by  gravity  and  piped  so  that  oil 
can  be  directed  to  all  or  any  one  tank.  They  have  given  perfect 
satisfaction  to  date  after  continuous  service  and  show  no  signs 
of  seepage  or  cracks.  Not  even  discoloration  caused  by  oil  pene- 
tration shows  on  the  outside.  It  is  the  writer's  opinion  that  it  is 
unnecessary  to  use  waterproofing  material  in  the  construction  of 
concrete  tanks  where  it  is  intended  to  store  heavy  fuel  oil.  The 
oil  penetrates  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  in.,  fills  the  pores  and  stops 
further  penetration;  therefore,  the  walls  should  be  at  least  8  in. 
thick  to  allow  for  this  pore  filling  process  whereas  a  3  or  4-in. 
wall  may  possibly  show  seepage.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
light  oils,  such  as  gasoline  and  benzine,  are  very  penetrative  and 
have  little  or  none  of  the  sealing  qualities  found  in  the  heavy 
fuel  oil,  it  would  be  necessary  that  a  water-proofing  compound 
in  a  paste  form  mixed  with  the  water  for  mixing  concrete  should 
be  used,  and  the  interior  of  tank  should  have  a  ^-in.  coat  of 
plaster  made  up  of  one  part  cement  and  one  part  sand  mixed  with 
a  first-class  waterproofing  compound  upon  which  may  be  placed 
a  solution  of  silica  of  soda,  applied  with  a  brush." 

The  fire  hazard  created  by  storage  of  fuel  has  generally  been 
over-estimated  by  the  insurance  companies  and  until  very  recently 
the  regulations  for  the  storage  and  use  of  fuel  oil  in  the  larger 
cities  have  been  much  more  stringent  than  is  necessary  for  pro- 
tection against  fire  risk. 

NATIONAL  FIRE  PROTECTION  ASSOCIATION  RULES 

The  tentative  regulations  for  the  storage  and  use  of  fuel  oil 
prepared  by  the  National  Fire  Protection  Association  (revised 
November  3,  1919)  are  as  follows: 


DISTRIBUTION   AND   STORAGE  95 

Section   1. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    METAL   TANKS. 
UNDERGROUND   TANKS. 

1.  Materials  of   Construction. 

(a)  Tanks   shall   be    constructed   of   galvanized    steel,    basic    open    hearth    steel    or 
wrought  iron  of  a  minimum  gauge   (U.   S.   Standard)   depending  upon  the  capacity,  as 
given   in   Tables    1    and   2.      For    liquids   of   20°    Baume   and   below,    tanks   may    be    of 
concrete. 

TABLE   1. 
Capacity  (Gallons)  Minimum  Thickness  of  Material 

1  to        560 14  gauge 

561  to     1,100 12 

1,101  to     4,000 7 

4,001  to  10,500 Yt   inch 

10,501  to  20,000 &     " 

20,001  to  30,000 tf     " 

(b)  In    outlying    districts    to    be    prescribed    by    inspection    departments    having 
jurisdiction,  tanks  not  exceeding  1,100  gallons  in  capacity,  if  located  ten  feet  or  more 
from  any  building,  may  be  constructed  as  follows: 

TABLE  2. 
Capacity  (Gallons)  Minimum   Thickness   of   Material 

1  to        30 .- 18  gauge 

31  to      350 16 

351  to  1,100 14 

2.  Joints  and   Connections. 

All  joints  shall  be  riveted  and  soldered,  riveted  and  caulked,  brazed,  welded  or 
made  by  some  equally  satisfactory  process.  Tanks  shall  be  tight  and  sufficiently 
strong  to  bear  without  injury  the  most  severe  strains  to  which  they  may  be  subjected 
in  practice..  Shells  of  tanks  shall  be  properly  reinforced  where  connections  are  made 
and  all  connections  made  through  the  top  of  tank  above  the  liquid  level. 

3.  Rust  Proofing. 

All  tanks  shall  be  thoroughly  coated  on  the  outside  with  tar,  asphaltum  or  other 
suitable  rust  resisting  material,  dependent  upon  the  condition  of  soil  in  which  they 
are  placed.  Where  soil  is  impregnated  with  corrosive  materials,  tanks  shall  also  be 
made  of  heavier  metal. 

4.  Venting  of  Tanks. 

(a)  An    independent,    permanently    open    vent    terminating    outside    of    building 
shall  be  provided   for  every  tank. 

(b)  Vent  openings  shall  be  screened    (30  by  30  nickel  or  brass  mesh  or  equiva- 
lent)   and    shall    be    of    sufficient    area    to    permit    proper    inflow    of    liquid    during   the 
filling  operation   and   in   no  case  less   than   two  inches   in   diameter;   shall  be   provided 
with   weatherproof   hoods  and  terminate   twelve   feet  above   top   of   fillpipe,    or  if   tight 
connection    is   made    in    filling   line,    co   a   point    one   foot    above    the   level    of   the    top 
of   the    highest   reservoir   from   which   the   tanks  may    be   filled   and    never    within    less 
than    three    feet,    measured    horizontally    and    vertically,    from    any    window    or    other 
building   opening. 

(c)  Where    a    battery    of   tanks    is    installed    vent    pipes    may    connect   to    a    main 
header,   but   individual   vent   pipes   shall   be   screened   between    tank   and   header.      The 
header  outlet  shall  conform  to  the  foregoing  requirements. 

5.  Filling   Pipe. 

Filling  pipe  shall  extend  to  within  six  inches  of  the  bottom  of  tank  and  when 
installed  in  the  vicinity  of  any  door  or  other  building  opening,  shall  be  as  remote 
therefrom  as  possible  and  never  within  five  feet;  terminal  shall  be  outside  of  building 
in  a  tight,  non-combustible  box  or  casting,  so  designed  as  to  make  access  difficult  by 
unauthorized  persons. 

6.  Manhole. 

Manhole  covers  shall  be  securely  fastened  in  order  to  make  access  difficult  by 
unauthorized  persons.  No  manhole  shall  be  used  for  filling  purposes. 

7.  Test  Well   or   Gauging  Device. 

A  test  well  or  gauging  device  may  be   installed,   provided   it  is   so  designed  as  to 


96  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

prevent    the    escape    of    oil    or    vapor    within    the    building    at    any    time.      Top    of    well 
shall   be   sealed   and  where  located   outside   of  building,   kept   locked   when   not   in   use. 

8.  Setting   of   Tanks. 

(a)  Tanks   to   be   buried   underground   with   top   of   the   tanks   not   less   than   three 
(3)    feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  below  the  level   of  any  piping  to  which 
the    tanks   may    be    con.nected,    except    that    in    lieu    of    the    three    (3)    feet    cover,    tank 
may   be  buried   18   inches  below  the   ground   level   and   a   cover   of   reinforced   concrete 
at   least   6    inches   in   thickness   provided,   which    shall    extend   at   least   one    foot   beyond 
the   outline   of   tank  in   all   directions;   concrete   slab   to   be   set   on   a  firm,   well   tamped 
earth   foundation.      Tanks   shall   be   securely   anchored   or   weighted   in    place   to   prevent 
floating. 

Where  a  tank  cannot  be  entirely  buried,  it  shall  be  covered  over  with  earth  to 
a  depth  of  at  least  3  feet  and  sloped  on  all  side?,  slopes  not  to  be  less  than  3  to  1. 
Such  cases  shall  also  be  subject  to  such  other  requirements  as  may  be  deemed 
necessary  by  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction. 

If  tank  cannot  be  set  below  the  level  of  all  piping  to  which  it  is  connected, 
satisfactory  arrangements  shall  be  provided  to  prevent  siphoning  or  gravity  flow  in 
case  of  accident  to  the  piping. 

(b)  Tanks    shall    be    set    on    a    firm    foundation    and    surrounded    with    soft    earth 
or   sand  well   tamped   in   place,   or   encased   in   concrete   as   outlined   in    Section   12    (b). 

(c)  When   located   underneath   a   building   the   tanks   shall   be   buried   with   top    of 
tanks  not   less  than  2   feet  below   the  level   of   the   floor.      The   floor   immediately   above 
the  tanks   shall  be   of  reinforced   concrete   at   least   9   inches   in   thickness,    extending   at 
least  one   foot  beyond  the  outline   of  tanks  in   all   directions,   and  provided   with   ample 
means   of   support   independent    of   any   tank. 

ABOVE   GROUND   TANKS. 

9.  Materials   of   Cbnstruction. 

(a)  Tanks,    including   top,    shall    be    constructed    of    galvanized    steel;    basic    open 
hearth  "Steel    or   wrought   iron    of   a   minimum    gauge    (U.    S.    Standard)    as   specified    in 
Tables  3  to   7,   inclusive.      No   open  tanks   shall   be   used. 

(b)  For  liquids   under   20°   Baume',   tanks   may   be   of  concrete. 

TABLE   3. 
Horizontal   or  vertical  tanks  not  over   1,100   gallons  capacity. 

Capacity  (Gallons)  Minimum   Thickness   of   Material 

1   to         30 18  gauge 

31  to       350 16        " 

351  to   1,100 14 

TABLE  4. 
'    Horizontal  tanks  over  1,100  gallons  capacity. 

Minimum   Thickness  of  Material 

Maximum  Diameter  Shell  Heads 

Not  over  5  feet 10  gauge  7  gauge 

5    feet   to      8    f e"et 7      "  J4   inch 

S    feet   to    11    feet 1A   inch  Y&     ' 

TABLE  5. 
.     Vertical  tanks  over   1,100   gallons  capacity. 

Under8  in    diameter   and   containing  not   more   than   5,000   gallons. 

Bottom    No.   8    gauge, 
Bottom   Ring  No.   8   gauge, 
Other  Rings  No.   10  gauge, 
Top  No.  12  gauge.  ..,          », 

.TABLE  6. 

Under8  feet   in    diameter   and   containing   more   than    5,000    gallon^  but    not 

more  than  10,000  gallons.  •-_._. 

Bottom    No.   8    gauge, 
Bottom    Ring   No.    7   gauge, 
Other  Rings  No.   8   gauge. 
Top  No.   12   gauge. 


a.     Dimensions  omitted  in   printed   form. — Author. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE 


97 


TABLE  7, 

Other   vertical   tanks   to   be    of   thickness   not  less   than    indicated    in   the   following 
table,   the   figures  referring  to  U.   S.    Standard   gauge: 


2nd            3rd 
Diameter                        Top             Ring          Ring 
Feet            Top          Ring            from          from 

4th              5th 
Ring           Ring 
from           from 

6th 
Ring 

from 

Bottom 

Tcp 

Top 

Top           Top 

Top 

80             .... 

10 

7 

& 

0 

3-0 

5-0 

10 

10 

7 

4 

1 

2-0 

4-0 

10 

70    

10 

7 

4 

1 

2-0 

4-0 

10 

65 

10 

7 

5 

1 

0 

3-0 

10 

60    

10 

5 

2 

0 

2-0 

10 

55 

10 

. 

6 

3 

1 

2-0 

10 

50    

10 

7 

4 

0 

10 

45    

10 

7 

7 

5 

3 

1 

10 

40  and   less.  . 

10 

7 

7 

5 

3 

2 

10 

(c)     Tanks 

of    capacity    greater 

than    given 

in 

Table    7    shall 

be     of 

material 

sufficient   in   thickness  to   hold   the  contents,   with   a   proper   factor  of   safety. 

(d)  No    vertical   tank   shall   exceed    35    feet   in    height. 

(e)  Riveted  joints   shall   have  an   efficiency   of  at   least   CO   per   cent. 

(f)  Joints — See   paragraph   2. 

(g)  Rust   proofing — See   paragraph    3. 

10.  Roofs   or   Tops. 

No  wooden  or  loosely  fitting  metal  roofs  or  tops  shall  be  permitted.  Roof  or  top 
shall  be  without  unprotected  openings;  shall  be  firmly  and  permanently  joined  to  the 
tank,  and  all  joints  made  as  noted  in  paragraph  2. 

11.  Venting  of  Tank. 

(a)  A   permanently   open   vent  conforming  to  paragraph   4   shall  be  provided. 

(b)  A    safety    valve    shall    be    provided,    or    a    hinged,    self-closing    manhole    cover 
kept  closed  by  weight  only. 

(c)  Approved    explosion    hatches    having    a.   combined    area    of    not    less    than    \l/z 
per   cent,   of  the  roof  area  shall   be   provided   for   every   tank  exceeding   200,000  gallons 
capacity. 

12.  Setting  of  Tanks. 

(a)  Tanks  shall  be  set  upon  a  firm  foundation,  and  shall  be  electrically  grounded 

(b)  Tanks   with   bottom   more    than    one   foot   above   the   ground   shall    have    foun- 
dation   and    supports    of    non-combustible    materials,    except    wooden    cushions. 

13.  Embankments  and   Dikes. 

(a)  In    locations    where    above-ground    tanks    are    liable,    in    case    of    breakage    or 
overflow,    to    endanger    surrounding     property,    each    tank    shall    be    protected    by    an 
embankment    or    dike.      Such    protection    shall    have    a    capacity    of   not    less    than    one 
and    one-half   times   the    capacity    of   the    tank    surrounded,    and   to   be    at    least    4    feet 
high,  but   in   no   case   higher  than    ]/^    the   height   of  tank  when   height  of  tank   exceeds 
16   feet. 

(b)  Embankments    or    dikes    to    be    made    of    earthwork    or    reinforced    concrete. 
Earthwork   embankments  to  be   firmly   and  compactly   built   of  good   earth   from   which 
stones,   vegetable   matter,   etc.,   have  been   removed,   and   to    have   a   crown    of   not    less 
than  3  feet  and  a  slope  of  at  least  2  to  1  on  both  sides. 

(c)  Embankments   or   dikes   shall  be   continuous,   with   no  openings   for   piping   or 
roadways.      Piping   shall    preferably   be   laid  over   embankments;    where   it   is   necessary 
to   install   pipes   through    embankments   concrete    wing   walls    shall    be   provided.      Brick 
or  concrete   steps   shall  be   used   where   it   is   necessary   to   pass   over. 

TANKS   INSIDE   BUILDINGS. 

Note:      Inside  storage  is  regarded  as  much   more   hazardous  than   outside   storage. 

Where   used  the    following   requirements   shall   be   rigidly   applied. 
14.     Setting  and  Heat  Insulation  of  Tanks.  .    v 

(a)  Tanks   shall    not    be    located    above    the    lowest    story,    cellar    or    basement    of 
building. 

(b)  Tanks    shall    be    located    below    the    level    of   any    piping   to    which    they    may 


98  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

be  connected,   or   if  this  is   impracticable,    satisfactory   arrangements    shall   be  made   to 
prevent  siphoning  or  gravity  flow  in  case  of  accident  to  the  equipment  or  piping. 

(c)  Tanks    shall    be    set    on    a    firm    foundation    supported    independently    of    the 
floor    construction    and    completely    enclosed    with    a    heat    insulation     of    reinforced 
concrete   not  less   than   12    inches   in   thickness    (8-  inches  for  concrete   tanks)    with   at 
least  a  6-inch  space  between  tank  and  concrete  insulation  filled  with  sand;  for  concrete 
tanks,    a    top    insulation    of    12    inches    of    sand    without    concrete    covering    shall    be 
deemed  sufficient. 

(d)  Walls  of  tanks,  including  those  for  insulating  purposes,   shall  be  constructed 
independently  of  and  not  in  contact  with  the  building  walls.     Eight  inches  of  concrete 
and   6  inches  of  sand  will  be  accepted  as  insulation   for  metal  tanks  when  located  in 
a   fire-resistive   oil   room    or    special   oil    storage   building.      The    space    occupied    by   the 
sand   insulation  shall  be   drained  through   the  insulating  concrete   wall   by   means   of  a 
pipe  not  greater  than  2  inches  in  diameter. 

15.  Venting  of  Tanks. 
See  paragraph  4. 

SECTION  2. 

SPECIFICATIONS    FOR    CONCRETE    TANKS. 

Note:  Concrete  tanks  are  more  susceptible  to  deterioration  than  metal  tanks  it 
there  is  any  defect  in  the  preparation  of  the  cement  as  well  as  in  the 
selection  of  the  ingredients  for  the  concrete  and  their  mixing  and 
pouring.  The  two  most  important  features  of  tank  design  are  the  foun- 
dation and  the  reinforcing  steel.  Concrete  tanks  shall  therefore  be  per- 
mitted only  after  detailed  plans  and  specifications  prepared  by  an  engineer 
specially  experienced  in  concrete  tank  construction  have  been  approved 
by  the  inspection  department  having  jurisdiction.  Furthermore,  it  is 
essential  that  the  construction  work  be  entrusted  only  to  thoroughly 
competent  concerns. 

16.  Type   of   Construction. 

The  entire  tank,  including  roof,   shall  be  of  reinforced  concrete. 

17.  Reinforcement. 

(a)  Reinforcement    shall    be    designed    to   take    care    of    all    interior    and    exterior 
stresses,  and  with  fittings  to  hold  it  rigidly  in  place  while  concrete  is  being  deposited. 
It   shall    be    properly    proportioned    and    located    to    reduce    the    shrinkage    cracks   to    a 
minimum. 

(b)  The  fiber  stress  in  the  steel  shall  not  exceed  10,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

(c)  Reinforcement    shall    be    of    round,    oval    or    square    twisted,    deformed    bars. 
All  bars  shall  conform  to  the  Standard  Specifications  for  Medium  Steel  of  the  Ameri- 
can   Society   for  Testing   Materials. 

(d)  The   bars   should   be   bent   or   curved   true   to   templates  and  carefully   placed 
in    their    predesigned    location.      No    lap    splice    shall    be    less   than    40    diameters,    and 
no   two   laps   of  adjacent  rods   shall   be   directly   opposite   each   other. 

18.  Forms. 

Forms  shall  be  of  good  material,  strongly  made,  tight  and  braced  or  held  in  place 
by  circumferential  bands,  so  that  no  distortion  allowing  displacement  of  the  concrete 
during  its  setting  is  possible.  The  use  of  wires  through  the  concrete  is  prohibited. 

19.  Material — Aggregates. 

(a)  The  cement  used  shall  meet  the  Standard  Specifications  for  Portland  Cement 
of  the  American  Society  for  Testing  Materials. 

Sand  shall  be  clean,  well  graded,  and  shown  by  colormetric  test  to  be  free  from 
organic  or  other  deleterious  matter. 

Coarse  shall  be  clean,  hard  stone,  preferably  limestone  or  trap  rock,  ranging  in 
size  trom  J4"  to  1".  No  quartz  gravel  or  granite  composed  largely  of  quartz  shall 
be  used. 

Water  shall  be  free  from  oil,  acid,  strong  alkalies  or  vegetable  matter. 

(b)  The  materials  shall  be  so  proportioned  that  concrete  of  the  greatest  density 
shall  be  obtained.     A  mixture   not  leaner  than   1   part   of  cement,    \l/t    parts   of  sand, 
and  3  parts  of  coarse  aggregate  shall  be  used. 

20.  Mixing. 

(a)  Mixing  shall  be  done  in  a  mechanical  hatch  mixer  of  sufficient  size  and 
Pjower  to  carry  out  each  prearranged  operation  without  danger  of  delay  during  the 
procece. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  99 

(b)  Duration  of  mixing  shall  be  at  least  two  minutes,  using  just  enough  water 
to  obtain  a  plastic  mix  without  excess  water  coming  to  the  surface  after  concrete 
is  deposited.  A  measuring  tank  shall  be  used  so  that  the  amount  of  water  may 
be  kept  uniform. 

Note:     Emphasis    is    laid    upon    the    necessity    of    measuring    the    water    content. 
With   I:ll/2:S    mixture,    the   water   content   should   be    5l/2    gallons    per   bag 
of  cement. 
21.     Depositing  or   Pouring  of  Concrete. 

(a)  The   concrete   shall,   where   possible,   be   deposited    continuously   in   concentric 
layers   not   over   12    inches   deep    in   any   one   place    so   that   a   monolithic   structure   will 
result. 

(b)  Where    continuous  pouring   is   impracticable,    the   pouring   operations   shall   be 
in   the  following  order: 

1.  The  pouring  of  footings   and   floor. 

2.  The  pouring  of  walls. 

3.  The  pouring  of  roof. 

(c)  No  break  in  time  of  over  30  minutes  shall   occur  during  any  one  operation. 
Where   delays   less  than   this  interval   occur,   the   previous   surface   shall  be   thoroughly 
chipped    with    spades,    swept    clean,    and    a    mixture    of    1:1    mortar    brushed    on    before 
next   layer   of   concrete    is    deposited. 

(d)  When  deposited  in  forms,  concrete  shall  be  thoroughly  spaded  against  inner 
and  outer  faces,   so  that  will  thoroughly   compact  and  work  out  all   trapped  air. 

22. 

If  walls  and  floors  are  not  poured  in  one  operation,  an  approved  joint  or  dam 
shall  be  provided  between  the  floor  and  wall.  Two  methods  are  suggested: 

1.  By    means    of    a   strip    of   galvanized    iron    6    inches    wide,    with   joints    riveted 
and  soldered  so  as  to  form  a  continuous  band.     This  strip  will  be  vertically  embedded 
3  inches  in  the  floor  slab,  and  on  the  center  line  of  the  wall.     The  floor  slab   under 
the  walls  shall  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  and  before  pouring  the  walls,  a  mixture  of  1:1 
mortar  should  be  placed  in   the  bottom   of  the  forms  and   around  the  galvanized   strip 
to  make  a  tight  joint. 

2.  Finish  the  joint  of  floor  as  nearly  square  as  possible.     Before  depositing  new 
concrete,    the   surface    shall   be   thoroughly    chipped    with    chisel,    hammer   or    pick,    and 
the    surface   thoroughly    cleaned    and    wet    down    with    water.      A    thick,    creamy    grout 
mortar    composed    of   1    part    of   cement   and    1    part    of    sand    shall    then    be    deposited 
to  a  depth  of  at  least  2  inches.     Immediately  following  this  operation,  the  new  concrete 
shall   be    deposited.      Method    No.    1    shall   be   followed   by    all    except   those   thoroughly 
experienced  in  the  construction  of  concrete  oil  tanks. 

23.  Freezing. 

During  freezing  weather  all  material  used  in  making  concrete,  particularly  the 
coarse  aggregate,  shall  be  heated,  and  precautions  taken  to  prevent  freezing  during 
pouring.  After  pouring,  the  concrete  shall  be  kept  above  40°  F.,  until  it  has  obtained 
its  final  set,  but  such  period  shall  be  at  least  72  hours.  Walls  and  floor  shall  be 
trowelled  smooth  as  soon  as  final  setting  occurs. 

24.  Aging  or   Curing. 

The  tank  shall  be  aged  or  cured  at  least  four  weeks  before  being  placed  in  use. 
Two  methods  for  accomplishing  this  are  suggested: 

1.  Fill  tank  with  clear  water. 

2.  Coat  the  floor,  interior  walls  and  under  side  of  roof  with  40°  Baume,   Sodium 
Silicate  and  keep  the  exterior  well  dampened.     A  good  method  of  applying  the  sodium 
silicate  is  as  follows: 

First  Coat — 1  part  of  sodium  silicate  and  3  parts  of  water.  Apply  with  brush 
and  wipe  off  all  excess  liquid  with  a  cloth  Before  drying. 

Second  Coat — 1  part  of  sodium  silicate  and  2  parts  of  water,  applied  as  first  coat. 

Third  Coat — 1  part  of  sodium  silicate  and  1  part  of  water  applied  with  a  brush 
and  allowed  to  dry. 

Fourth   Coat — Same  as  third. 

25.  Venting  of  Tanks. 
See  paragraph  4. 

26.  Fill  Pipe. 

See  paragraph  5. 


100  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

27.  Test  Well   or  Gauging  Device. 
See  paragraph  7. 

28.  Oil   Proofing. 

The  interior  of  tanks  shall  be  oil-proofed.  This  work  shall  be  done  only  by 
concerns  experienced  in  oil-proofing.  A  bond  guaranteeing  work  for  a  term  of  years 
shall  be  furnished. 

Section    3. 
LOCATION  AND  CAPACITY  OF  TANKS  FOR  LIQUORS  ABOVE  AND  BELOW 

20°   BAUMfi  (sp.  gr.   .933). 
UNDERGROUND   STORAGE. 

29.  Tanks  shall  preferably  be  located  at  least  50  feet  from  important  buildings. 
When  this  cannot  be  done,  the  limit  of  individual  tank  capacity  permitted  shall  be 
dependent  on  the  location  of  tanks  with  respect  to  adjacent  buildings,  as  follows: 

(a)  15.000  gallons  capacity  if  tank  is  so  located  that  the  top  is  above  the  lowest 
floor  or   pit   of   any   building   within    10   feet.      In  this  case   the  tank   must   be   entirely 
enclosed  in  concrete  as  outlined  in   paragraph   14   C. 

(b)  15,000  gallons  capacity  if  tank  is  so  located  that  the  top  is  below  the  lowest 
floor  or  pit  of  any  building  within  10  feet. 

(c)  20,000   gallons   capacity   if   the   tank   is   so   located   that   the   top    is   below  the 
lowest   floor  or   pit  of  any   building  within   15   feet. 

(d)  30,000  gallons  capacity  if  tank  is  so  located  that  the  top  is  below  the  lowest 
floor   or  pit  of  any   building   within   20   feet. 

(e)  40  000   gallons   capacity    if   the   tank  is    so   located   that   the   top    is   below   the 
lowest   floor   or   pit   of  any   building   within   25    feet. 

(f)  60,000  gallons  capacity  if  tank  is  so  located  that  the  top  is  below  the  lowes* 
floor  or   pit  of  any  building  within  30  feet. 

(g)  80,000    gallons    capacity    if    tank    is    so    located    that    the    top    is    below    the 
lowest    floor    or   pit   of   any   building   within    35    feet. 

(h)  110,000  gallons  capacity  if  tank  is  so  located  that  the  top  is  below  the 
lowest  floor  or  pit  of  any  building  within  40  feet. 

(i)  Unlimited  capacity  may  be  permitted  for  underground  tanks  used  only 
for  the  storage  of  liquids  of  20°  Baume  and  below  if  tank  is  so  located  that 
the  top  is  below  the  lowest  floor  or  pit  of  any  building  within  50  feet. 

(j)  Quantities  of  liquids  above  20°  Baume  that  may  be  stored  at  distances 
greater  than  50  feet,  shall  be  at  the  discretion  of  the  inspection  department  having 
jurisdiction. 

ABOVE-GROUND    STORAGE. 
30. 

(a)  The    relation    between    gross   capacity    of   tanks   and   the   permissible    distance 
from   other   property   is   shown    in   Table   8.      No    unprotected   tank   shall   be    within    60 
feet   of   the   nearest   building. 

(b)  No    tank    shall    be    located    closer    to    the    building    than    a    distance    equal    to 
the   height   of    that   wall   of   the   building,    facing   the   tank. 

TABLE   8. 

Capacity  of  Tanks  Capacity  of  Tanks 

Minimum  Distance  to  Line  of  Adjoining  (Gallons)  (Gallons) 

Property  or  Nearest  Building  Liquids  above  20°  Be  Liquids  20°  Be 

and  below 
100,000 
128,000 
200,000 
266,000 
400,000 
666,000 
1,333,000 
2,666,000 
31.      Permissible   Reduction    in    Distances. 

(a)  Where  all  buildings  have  standard,  parapetted  concrete  or  masonry  exterior 
walls  without  unprotected  openings  on  the  sides  facing  tanks,  or,'  where  tanks  are 
protected  by  concrete  or  masonry  fire  walls  parapetted  not  less  than  10  feet  above 


75 

96,000 

85 

150  000 

100 

200  000 

150    

300,000 

250 

500,000 

300 

1,000,000 

350... 

,   2,000,000 

DISTRIBUTION   AND    STDR&&E        v^^HA 

top  of  tank  and  extending  at  least  10  feet  beyond  tank  extremes,  in  both  directions, 
the  distance  given  in  Table  8  may  be  reduced  50  per  cent.;  provided,  however,  that 
no  tank  shall  be  located  closer  to  building  than  a  distance  equal  to  80  per  cent,  of 
the  height  of  exposed  wall. 

(b)  Where  openings  in  exposed  walls  are  deemed  a  vital  necessity,  the  inspection 
department  having  jurisdiction  may  permit  openings  dependent  upon  the  construction 
and  occupancy  of  the  building.  In  this  case  openings  shall  be  protected  by  fixed 
standard  wired  glass  windows  or  standard  fire  shutters.  In  no  case,  however,  shall 
the  total  area  of  such  openings  in  any  one  store  exceed  10  per  cent,  of  the  superficial 
area  of  the  wall  of  one  story,  15  feet  in  vertical  height  being  considered  the  equivalent 
of  one  story. 

32.  High  Water. 

Tanks  shall   be   so   located   as   to   avoid  possible   danger   from   high   water. 

33.  Streams   Without    Tide. 

When  tanks  are  located  on  a  stream  without  tide,  they  shall,  where  possible, 
be  down  stream  from  burnable  property. 

34.  Tide   Water. 

On  tide  water,  tanks  shall  be  located,  if  practicable,  well  away  from  shipping 
districts. 

STORAGE    INSIDE    OF   BUILDINGS. 

35.  Liquids  above  20°  Baume. 

The    storage  within    buildings   of   oils   above   20"    Be',    is   prohibited. 

36.  Permanently    Set    Storage    Tanks    Inside    Buildings    for    Liquids    of    20°    Baume 

and   Below. 

(a)  In    ordinary    buildings    the    gross    capacity    of    tanks    shall    not    exceed    5,000 
gallons. 

(b)  In  fire-resistive  buildings  the  gross  capacity  of  tanks  shall  not  exceed  10,000 
gallons. 

(c)  In  any  building,   if  cut  off  in  a  special  fire-resistive   oil   room   or   oil  storage 
building    conforming    to    requirements    given    in    paragraph    37,    the    gross    capacity    of 
tanks   shall   not  exceed   50,000  gallons,  with  an  individual  tank  capacity  not   exceeding 
25,000  gallons. 

Section   4. 

FIRE-RESISTIVE    OIL    STORAGE    ROOMS    AND    BUILDINGS. 
37. 

Special  fire-resistive  rooms  within  buildings  for  the  storage  of  oil  shall  be  con- 
structed as  follows: 

Walls  shall  be  not  less  than  12  inches  if  brick  or  8  inches  if  reinforced  concrete; 
floor  and  ceiling  shall  be  of  concrete  at  least  8  inches  thick  or  its  equivalent.  Door 
openings  to  other  rooms  or  buildings  shall  be  provided  with  sills  sufficiently  raised  to 
create  a  receptacle  capable  of  containing  twice  the  capacity  of  the  largest  tank  or  the 
full  capacity  if  only  one  tank;  said  door  openings  shall  be  protected  by  an  approved 
automatically  closing  fire  door  on  each  side  of  the  wall;  no  combustible  material 
shall  be  used  in  construction.  Great  care  shall  be  taken  to  insure  proper  ventilation. 

Section    5. 
PIPING— GENERAL   REQUIREMENTS. 

38.  Cross   Connections. 

Cross-connections  permitting  gravity  flow  from  one  tank  to  another  shall  be  pro- 
hibited. This  shall  not  be  construed  as  prohibiting  properly  gated  connections  through 
subdivisions  in  any  individual  tank. 

39.  Workmanship. 

All  pipe  connections  to  tanks  and  other  oil  containing  or  using  devices  shall  be 
made  in  a  substantial  workmanlike  manner. 

40.  Type   of   Material. 

All  piping  shall  be  of  the  standard,  wrought  iron  type.  No  pipe  less  than  J^-inch 
internal  diameter  will  be  permitted.  ' 

41.  Installation. 

Piping  shall  be  run  as  directly  as  possible,  without  sags,  and  so  laid  that  pipes 
pitch  toward  the  supply  tank  without  traps;  provision  shall  be  made  for  expansion, 
contraction,  jarring  and  vibration. 


iQ2  .F.D.EL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

42.  Tests. 

Piping  after  installation  shall  be  tested  to  a  pressure  of  not  less  than  150  pounds. 

43.  Unions. 

Unions,  if  used  in  place  of  right  and  left  couplings,  shall  be  of  an  approved  type. 

44.  Protection   to    Piping. 

(a)  Piping  between  any  separated  oil  containing  or  using  parts  of  the  equipment, 
shall    be    as    far    as    practicable,    laid    outside    of    the    building,    underground,    and    if 
necessarily    inside,    it   shall    preferably    be    laid    in    a    trench    with   proper    metal    cover, 
if  on  floor  or  subject  to  mechanical  injury  it  shall  be  protected. 

(b)  Pipes  leading  to   the  surface  of  the   ground   or   above  the   floor,    particularly 
risers   to    furnaces,    shall   be   eased   or   jacketed    when    necessary    to   prevent   loosening 

or   breakage. 

(c)  Fill    and    vent    pipes    shall    be    protected    in    a    substantial    manner    against 
mechanical    injury. 

45.  Outside  Piping. 

(a)  All    outside    piping  shall   be  laid    in    solid    earth,    or   in    a   trench.      Oil    pipes 
shall   not   be   located   near,   nor   in    the    same   trench    with    other   piping,    except   steam 
lines  for  heating.      Propping  the  pipes   on   wooden  blocks  shall  be   avoided. 

(b)  Openings   for   pipes   through    outside   walls    below    the    ground   level    shall    be 
made    oil-tight   and   securely   packed   with   flexible   material. 

46.  Valves. 

(a)  All  valves  shall  be  of  an  approved  type. 

(b)  Shut-off  valves   shall  be  provided  on   both    sides   of  any   strainer   which   may 
be  installed  in   pipe  lines;  in   discharge  and  suction   lines  to   pumps;   in   discharge  and 
return  lines  to  any  tank,  as  near  tank  as  practicable,  and  in  branch  lines  near  burners. 

(c)  A  check  valve   of  an  approved  type  shall  be   installed  in   each  air  line  near 
the  burner. 

(d)  A  pressure  relief  valve  shall  be   installed   in   supply  line   to   burners   and   so 
arranged  as  to  return  surplus  oil  to  supply  tank. 

(e)  The  use  of  automatic  shut-off  valves  for  the  oil  supply  is  recommended. 

47.  Oil   Level   Indicating   Device. 

A  device  for  indicating  the  level  of  the  oil  is  desirable.  Where  used,  such  an 
attachment  shall  be  connected  through  substantial  fittings  that  will  minimize  exposure 
of  the  oil;  no  devices  shall  be  used,  the  breakage  of  which  will  allow  the  escape  of  oil. 

Section  6. 
HEATING. 

48.  Heating  of  Tanks. 

(a)  Where   it  is   necessary   to    heat    oil   in    storage    tanks   in    order   to    handle    it, 
the  oil  shall  not  be  heated  to  a  temperature  higher  than  40°   F.  below  the  flash  point, 
closed   cup. 

(b)  Heating  shall  be  done  by  means  of  properly  installed  coils  within  the  tank, 
using   only    steam    or   water.      Thermostatic   control    shall    be    provided    for   all    heating 
devices. 

49.  Heaters,  Other  Than  Those  for  Tanks. 

(a)  Heaters  shall  be  of  substantial  construction,  all  joints  shall  be  made  oil-tight. 

(b)  Only  steam   or  water  shall  be  used  for  heating. 

(c)  Heater    shall    be    by-passed    so    that    in    warm    weather    it    will    not    be    under 
constant  pressure   while   not   in   use. 

Section  7. 

BURNERS. 
50. 

(a)  The  burner  mechanism  shall  be  so  designed  as  to  not  enlarge  the  orifice,  and 
so  that  the  needle  valve  cannot  be  unscrewed  and  removed   in   operating. 

(b)  Where  atomizing  mediums  are  employed,  the  power  supply  to  the  oil  pump 
shall  be  so  arranged  that  the  operation  of  the  pump  shall  automatically  stop,  on  cessa- 
tion of  flow  of  the  atomizing  medium   at  the   burner. 

(c)  Burners  shall  be   so   designed  as  to  be  free  from   stoppage  by  carbonization, 
to  not  permit  leakage  of  oil  and  so  that  they  may  be  easily  cleaned, 

(d)  Burners  containing  chambers  which   allow   dangerous  accumulation   of   gases 
shall  be  prohibited. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  103 

Section  8. 
PUMPING   SYSTEMS. 

51.  Systems  employing  gravity   feed  or  pressure   on  tanks  are  prohibited. 

52.  Pumps. 

(a)  Pumps  shall  be  in  duplicate,  of  an  approved  design,  and  secure  against  leaks. 

(b)  They   shall  be  located   in  a  room  cut   off  from  oil   burning  devices  and   pro- 
vided   with    entrance    which    can    be    reached    without    passing    through    room    where 
burners    are    located;    if    this    is    not   practicable,    provision    shall    be    made    for    remote 
control. 

(c)  Pumps   used   in    connection   with    the   supply   and    discharge   of   storage    tanks 
shall  be  located  outside  the  tank  or  embankment  walls,  and  at  such  a  point  that  they 
will  be  accessible  at  all  times,  even  if  the  oil  in  the  tank  or  reservoir  should  be  on  fire. 


NEW   YORK   REGULATIONS 

The  Board  of  Standards  and  Appeals  of  the  City  of  New 
York  makes  the  following  provisions  for  the  storage  and  use  of 
fuel  oil : 

FUEL  OIL  RULES. 
Rule   1.      Definition.      Flash  Point   and    Specific  Gravity. 

The  term  "oil  used  for  fuel  purposes"  under  these  rules  includes  any  liquid 
or  mobile  mixture,  substance  or  compound  derived  from  or  including  petroleum. 

All  oil  used  for  fuel  purposes  under  these  rules  shall  show  a  minimum  flash 
point  of  not  less  than  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  (175)  degrees  Fahrenheit,  in  an 
open  cup  tester,  or  if  cloced  cup  te  ter  be  used  a  minimum  of  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  (150)  degrees  Fahrenheit,  and  its  specific  gravity  shall  be  not  less 
than  .933  (20  degrees  Baume)  at  a  temperature  of  sixty  (60)  degrees  Fahrenheit; 
and  must  not  be  fed  from  the  tank  to  the  suction  pump  at  a  pre-heat  temperature 
higher  than  its  flash  point. 
Rule  2.  Manner  of  Storage. 

Oil  to  be  used  as  fuel  for  commercial,  heating  and  power  purposes  on  the  premises 
where  stored  shall  be  at  all  times  contained  in  metal  tanks  with  all  openings  or  con- 
nections through  the  tops  of  the  tanks,  except  a  clean-out  plug  in  the  bottom;  and, 
when  located  inside  of  a  building,  must  at  all  times  be  placed  in  the  cellar  or  lowest 
story  of  such  building,  and  at  least  two  (2)  feet  in  a  horizontal  direction  from  any 
supporting  portion  of  the  structure,  and  if  practicable  shall  be  buried  underneath  the 
lowest  floor  or  ground. 
Rule  3.  Location  of  Tanks.  Existing  Buildings. 

No  storage  of  fuel  oil  shall  be  permitted  in  a  building  of  frame  construction 
within  the  fire  limits,  or  in  buildings  of  hazardous  occupancy  as  so  defined  by  the 
fire  commissioner. 

If  placed  in  buildings  already  erected,  if  not  buried  beneath  the  lowest  floor  or 
ground,  such  tanks  shall  be  placed  in  an  enclosure  the  floor  of  which  shall  be  at  least 
three  (3)  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  cellar  or  lower  story;  or  if  by  reason  of  water 
or  foundation  conditions,  or  if  on  rock  bottom,  the  tank  may  be  placed  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground,  but  in  any  case  subject  to  the  conditions  as  hereinafter  described 
under  Rule  5. 
Rule  4.  Location  of  Tanks — New  Buildings. 

In   buildings   hereafter   erected  the   bottom   of   the   fuel   oil    service   tanks   shall   be 
located  in,  or  below  the  floor  level  of  the  cellar  or  lowest  stoiy  as  shall  be  determined 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  under  the  provisions  of  Rule  2. 
Rule   5.      Enclosure  of  Tanks. 

In  either  existing  or  new  buildings  such  fuel  oil  service  tanks  shall  be  enclosed 
in  an  unpierced  wall  and  floor  of  approved  masonry  or  reinforced  concrete,  made 
oilproof  and  waterproof,  and  not  less  than  twelve  (12)  inches  in  thickness;  and  also 
of  sufficient  thickness  to  properly  support  any  lateral  pressure,  and  to  be  of  lateral 
dimensions  at  least  one  (1)  foot  greater  on  all  sides  than  the  outside  dimensions 
of  the  tank.  These  walls  are  to  be  carried  up  to  a  height  of  at  least  one  (1)  foot 


104  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

above  the  tank,  or  the  supply  and  feed  connections  thereto,  and  roofed  over  with 
reinforced  concrete  or  its  equivalent  at  least  twelve  (12)  inches  thick  and  capable  of 
sustaining  a  live  load  of  at  least  three  hundred  (300)  pounds  per  square  foot;  and  if 
not  buried  below  the  ground,  placed  so  as  to  leave  a  clear  and  open  space  (except 
for  pipe  connections)  of  at  least  two  (2)  feet  between  such  roof  over  the  enclosure 
and  the  under  side  of  the  ceiling  above.  The  roof  of  every  enclosure  shall  contain 
a  manhole  with  fireproof  cover  properly  weighted,  but  not  fastened,  placed  immedi- 
ately above  the  supply  and  feed  connections  and  the  manhole  in  top  of  the  tank. 

Where  found  impractical  to  set  the  bottom  of  the  tank  three  (3)  feet  below  the 
floor  of  the  cellar  or  lowest  story,  the  tank  shall  rest  on  steel  or  masonry  supports, 
and  the  bottom  of  the  tank  shall  be  at  least  one  (1)  foot  above  the  floor  of  the 
enclosure,  and  the  enclosure  wall  and  floor  as  above  specified  shall  be  unpierced  and 
the  space  below  the  horizontal  centre  line  of  the  tank  and  within  the  enclosure 
formed  by  the  surrounding  unpierced  walls  shall  have  a  capacity  of  at  least  sixty 
(60)  per  cent  of  the  capacity  of  the  tank. 

The  space  within  the  enclosure  surrounding  the  tank  shall  be  at  all  times  vented 
to  the  air  outside  of  the  building  by  iron  or  other  fireproof  conduit  at  least  two 
and  one-half  (2l/>)  inches  diameter,  connecting  the  enclosure  at  a  point  just  above 
the  floor  level,  and  which  shall  finish  above  the  street  surface  with  proper  connection 
at  that  point  to  permit  the  Fire  Department  to  flood  the  enclosure. 

A    separate    similar    vent    without    Fire    Department    connection    shall    enter    the 
enclosure  just  below  its  ceiling. 
Rule   6.      Capacity    of   Tanks. 

In  existing  or  new  buildings  of  non-fireproof  construction  no  fuel  oil  service  tank 
containing  over  ten  thousand  two  hundred  (10,200)  gallons,  and  in  buildings  of  fire- 
proof construction  no  tank  containing  over  twenty  thousand  (20,000)  gallons,  shall 
be  placed  in  any  single  portion  of  the  cellar  or  lowest  story  unless  such  portion  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  cellar  by  walls  of  masonry  or  reinforced  concrete 
with  openings  protected  by  automatic  fireproof  doors,  with  sills  placed  high  enough 
above  the  cellar  floor  to  contain  capacity  of  tank  located  therein,  in  addition  to  the 
enclosure  as  already  specified  for  the  tank,  and  such  portion  be  ventilated  to  the 
outer  air.  More  than  one  such  single  tank  may  be  installed  if  enclosed  and  separated 
as  above. 

When    tanks   are   buried   so    that   the   top   of   the    roof   over   the    enclosure    wall    is 
level   with    the   cellar   floor,   the   capacity   of   any   such   tank   may    be    increased   by   one 
hundred   (100)   per  cent. 
Rule  7.      Service  Tanks   Located   Outside  of   Buildings  Within   Fire   Limits. 

Within  the  fire  limits,  tanks  to  contain  fuel  oil  for  use  on  the  premises,  and  of 
a  capacity  and  at  distances  specified  below,  may  be  placed  above  ground  outside 
of  the  building  if  such  tank  does  not  exceed  fifteen  (15)  feet  in  height  above  the 
surface  of  the  ground  and  if 'completely  enclosed  in  the  same  manner  as  provided  for 
in  Rule  5. 

Distance  to  Nearest 
Building  in  Feet  Not  Exceeding  Capacity  in  Gallons 

40     71,400 

30     40,800 

20 30,600 

10 20?400 

5 10,200 

If    such    service    tanks   are    entirely   buried    and   roofed   below    the    surface    of    the 
ground,  the  capacity  in  gallons  may  be  increased  by  two  hundred    (200)    per  cent. 
Rule    8.      Outside    General    Storage    Fuel    Oil    Tanks    Located    Above    Ground    Within 
the    Fire    Limits. 

Such  general  storage  tanks  located  within  the  fire  limits  shall  not  exceed  twenty- 
five  (25)  feet  in  height,  shall  be  built  of  metal,  and  shall  be  surrounded  with  a  dike 
of  unpierqed  masonry  of  reinforced  concrete  not  less  than  four  (4)  feet  in  height, 
with  a  capacity  of  at  least  that  of  the  tank  to  be'  protected.  The  walls  and  floor 
,o,f  such  dikes  must  be  continuous,  and  oilprfeof  arid 'Waterproof,  and  must  not  be  built 
within  ten  (10)  feet  of  the  walls  of  the  tank.  If  tanks  are  placed  in  battery  the 
dikes  shall  be  rectangular  in  shape,  and  the  dike  wall  separating  them  as  well  as  the 
dike  wall  within  one  hundred  (100)  feet  of  any  structure,  shall  be  carried  up  as  a 


DISTRIBUTION    AND    STORAGE  105 

fire  stop  to  a  height  of  four  (4)  feet  above  the  head  of  the  tank  and  coped  with 
stone  or  concrete,  and  any  openings  in  walls  above  the  dike  shall  have  automatic 
fireproof  doors. 

The   capacity   of   any   such   single   general  "storage   tank   within   the   fire   limits   shall 
not  exceed  one  hundred  thousand   (100,000)   gallons,  and  the  gross  capacity  of   storage 
shall   not   exceed  the   following  tables: 
To  line  of  adjoining  property 
or  nearest  building  (feet)  Gallons 

75    100,000 

100 150,000 

150    250,000 

200    , 500,000 

Such   general   storage   tanks   may   have   extra   fill   and   emptying   connections   as   the 
Fire    Commissioner    may    determine. 
Rule   9.      Outside    General    Storage    Fuel    Oil    Tanks    Located    Outside   the    Fire    Limits. 

Such  general  storage  tanks  shall  be  protected  by  dikes  and  fire  stops  as  provided 
under  Rule  8,  shall  not  exceed  thirty-five  (35)  feet  in  height  above  the  ground,  and 
may  be  constructed  either  of  metal  or  of  concrete  reinforced  with  steel  in  order  to 
resist  the  oil  pressure. 

If  built  of  concrete,  the  walls  and  floor  of  such  tanks  shall  be  continuous  and 
shall  be  not  less  than  eight  (8)  inches  thick,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  1:1^:3 
graded  and  mixed  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  Chapter  5,  Code  of  Ordi- 
nances. The  walls  shall  be  of  sufficient  thickness  so  that  the  tensile  stress,  disregarding 
the  steel  reinforcements,  shall  not  exceed  one  hundred  and  fifty  (150)  pounds  per 
square  inch.  The  horizontal  and  vertical  reinforcement  shall  be  properly  proportioned 
and  placed  to  provide  for  expansion  and  shrinkage  without  leakage,  and  the  stress 
in  the  steel  shall  not  exceed  ten  thousand  (10,000)  pounds  per  square  inch. 

As  soon  as  the  concrete  has  hardened  sufficiently  to  be  self-sustaining,  the  forms 
shall  be  removed  and  all  cavities  filled  with  a  one  to  one  (1:1)  mortar  thoroughly 
rubbed  in  and  all  irregularities  trowelled  smooth. 

The  concrete  shall  harden  at  least  twenty-eight  (28)  days  before  use,  and  the 
surface  of  the  floor  and  the  interior  surface  of  the  walls  shall  be  protected  by  coating 
with  a  sodium  silicate  solution  or  Other  equally  good  protection  to  prevent  oil  coming 
in  contact  with  the  concrete. 

The  maximum  gross  capacity  of  any  such  single  tank  when  situated  outside  the 
fire  limits  shall  not  exceed  two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  (250,000)  gallons,  but 
the  gross  storage  capacity  may  -be  double  that  specified  in  the  tables  under  Rule  8; 
and  when  such  tanks  are  placed  at  least  two  hundred  and  fifty  (250)  feet  from  the 
line  of  adjoining  property  or  the  nearest  building,  the  gross  capacity  may  be  unlimited. 
Rule  10.  Material  and  Construction  of  Tanks. 

1.  All  fuel  oil  storage  tanks  within  the  fire  limits  shall  be  constructed  of  wrought 
iron,  galvanized  steel,  basic  open  hearth  or  electric  steel  plates  of  gauge  corresponding 
to  the  capacity  as  specified  in  the  following  tables: 

TANKS '  PLACED   UNDERGROUND. 

Thickness  of  Material 

Capacity  in  Gallons  U.  S.  Gauge 

500 14 

1,000 '  12 

5,000 7 

10,000 y4  inch 

20,000 5/16  •< 

30,000 ; 3/s    « 

TANKS   PLACED   ABOVE   GROUND.      (Horizontal.) 

Thickness  of  Material 
Maximum  Diameter  '  U.    S.    Gauge 

in  feet  .  Heads  '     Shell 

5- •  •  ....  ...C 7  10 

8 •  •  •  •  • • ,          J4'  inch  7 

'-* H      "  1A   inch 


106  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

TANKS  PLACED  ABOVE  GROUND.   (Vertical.) 


f  —  .imcKuess    ui    ivxaienai,     u 
2nd           3rd          4th 

.    o.    uauge—                          —  ^ 
5th                6th 

Diameter 

Top 

Ring 

Ring 

Ring 

Ring 

Ring 

Feet 

Top 

Ring 

from 

from 

from 

from 

from 

Bottom 

Top 

Top 

Top 

Top 

Top 

40  and   less. 

.  .10 

7 

7 

7 

5 

3 

2 

10 

45      . 

10 

7 

i~ 

7 

5 

3 

i 

10 

50 

10 

7 

7 

7 

4 

o 

10 

55    . 

10 

7 

7 

g 

3 

2—0 

10 

60 

10 

7 

2 

2—0 

65    

..10 

7 

7 

5 

1 

0 

3-0 

10 

70 

10 

M 

7 

4 

-. 

2—0 

4—0 

10 

75 

.  .10 

7 

4 

2—0 

4—0 

10 

SO   .. 

.  ,10 

7 

7 

3 

0 

3-0 

5-0 

10 

2.  Tanks  of  greater  capacity  than  above   shall  be  proportionately   heavier  and   of 
sufficient  thickness  to   safely  hold  the  contents. 

3.  All    joints    shall    be    riveted    and    caulked,    brazed,    welded,    or    made    by    some 
equally  satisfactory  process,  and  the  tanks  braced  sufficiently  to  withstand  all   stresses 
due  to   transportation   or   use.      All   riveted  joints  shall   have  an   efficiency   of  not   less 
than  sixty    (60)    per  cent. 

4.  The  top   cover   shall  be   of  the   same   material   as   used   in   the   construction   of 
the  tank,  permanently  secured  to  the  tanks  without  other  openings  than   provided  for 
in    these    rules.      A    safety    valve    shall    be    installed    on    all    tanks    placed    outside    of 
buildings. 

5.  All   outlets  and   inlets  shall  be  through  the  top   or   cover   of  the   tank,    except 
for   the   clean-out   plug   as   provided    for   under    Rule    2,    and    in   general    storage   tanks 
a  water  drain  not  exceeding  one   (1)    inch  diameter  may  be  permitted. 

6.  All  metal  tanks  shall  be  thoroughly  coated  on  the  outside  with  tar,  asphaltum, 
or    other    suitable    rust-resisting    protection.      When    buried    in    soil    impregnated    with 
corrosive  materials,  steel  tanks  shall  be   entirely  covered  with  a  two-inch  thickness  of 
cement  mortar  or  shall  be  of  heavier  metal  in  addition  to  being  protected  as  specified. 

7.  All    above    ground    storage   tanks    exceeding    two,  hundred    thousand    (200,000) 
gallons  capacity  shall  be  provided  with  approved  explosion  hatches  having  a  combined 
area  of  not  less  than  one  and  one-half    (1J^)    per  cent  of  the  roof  area  of  the  tank. 

8.  All    tanks    shall    be    tested    and    muit    withstand    a    pressure    of    not    less    than 
twenty-five   (25)    pounds  per  square  inch  shop  test.a 

Rule  11.     Vent  and  Fill  Pipes. 

1.  Each   fuel    oil   tank   shall    be   provided   with   a  separate    steel   vent   pipe   and    a 
separate   steel  fill  pipe   of  at  least  two    (2)    inches   diameter  placed   in  the  top   of  the 
tank.     The  vents  for  enclosure  around  tank  shall  be  as  specified  under  Rule  5. 

2.  Vent    pipes    for    fuel    oil    tanks    located    in    the    lower    story    or    buried    under 
buildings   shall  be   run   to   a   point   outside   the   building,    above   the   street  surface   and 
at   least   twelve    (12)    feet   above  the    fill   pipe   and    shall    terminate    in    a  weatherproof 
hood   or   a   gooseneck,    protected    with    non-corrodable    screens   of   not   less   than    thirty 
by  thirty   (30  x  30)   nickel  mesh  or  equivalent.     Such  vent  shall  not  be  located  within 
five    (5)    feet   either   veitfically    or   horizontally    of   a   window    or   other    opening   or    an 
exterior  stairway  or  fire  escape. 

3.  The  receiver  terminal  of  fill  pipes  shall  be  located  in  a  metal  box  or   casting 
provided  with  means  for  locking  and  the  delivery  terminal  shall  be  connected  through 
the  top  of  the  tank  at  a  point  furthest  remote  from  the  vent. 

Rule  12.     Fuel  Oil  Feed  Systems. 

1.  Systems   fed   by   gravity    or   force    systems   between    tank    and    pump    shall    not 
be  permitted. 

2.  Pump    suction    feed    systems    only    will    be    approved    and    anti-syphon    system 
must  be  provided. 


a.  This  requirement  is  extremely  unreasonable  and  is  not  based  on  engineering 
principles.  A  pressure  of  five  (5)  pounds  per  square  inch  shop  test  for  fuel  oil  tanks 
is  acknowledged  by  all  engineers  to  be  ample  security  against  leakage. — Author. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  107 

Rule  13.     Pumps  and  Piping. 

1.  Feed    pumps    for    fuel    oils    shall    be    of    approved    design,    so    arranged    that 
dangerous   pressures   will   not   obtain    in   any   part   of  the   system   and   shall   be   located 
outside    of    enclosure   walls   around    storage    tanks,    but    so    placed    as    to    be    accessible 
at    all    times,    and    provision    shall    also    bs   made    for    remote    control.      They    shall    be 
installed  in   duplicate  when   directed  by  the   Fire  Commissioner  and  shall   be  provided 
with  a  by-pass  to  permit  the  draining  of  the  oil  for  repairs. 

A   separate   hand  pump   shall  be   provided   for   starting  purposes. 

2.  Oil  conveying  pipes  shall  be  carried  above  the  tank  outlet;  if  laid  underground 
after  leaving  the  tank  to  be  carried  in  a  separate  trench  enclosed  in  fireproof  or  non- 
conducting  material.      They   shall   be   of   extra   heavy   standard   wrought   iron,    steel   or 
brass  pipe   with   substantial   fittings  and   not  less   than   one-half    (^)    inch    in   size   and 
if   covered    it   shall   be   with   asbestos    or   other    approved    fireproof    material.      Overflow 
pipes   shall   be   at   least   one    size   larger   than    supply    pipes   and    shall    be    carried    back 
to  the  receiver  terminal. 

3.  All    connections    shall   be   tight   with   well-fitted    joints.      Unions    shall   have    at 
least  one   face  made  of  brass   with   conically-faced   seats. 

4.  Connections    leading   to    outside   tanks    shall   be    laid   below   the    frost   line   and 
shall    not    be    located    near    or    placed    in    same    trench    with    piping    other    than    steam 
lines  for   heating.     All   pipes  leading  to  the   surface  of  the   ground    shall   be   cased  or 
jacketed  to  prevent  loosening  or  breakage.     Openings  for  pipes  through   outside  walls 
below  the  ground   level  shall  be  securely   cemented  and  made   oil-tight. 

5.  Piping    shall    be    run    as    directly    as    possible,    without    sags,    and    be    properly 
supported    to    allow    for    expansion,    contraction,    jarring    and    vibration    and    draining. 

6.  Piping  between   any   separated  oil   container  or   using  parts  of  the   equipment, 
should  be   laid   as  far  as  practicable  outside   of  the  building,   underground,   and  inside 
piping  in   a  trench   with   metal   cover   or  protected   by  not  less   than   three    (3)    inches 
of  concrete. 

7.  Piping  under   pressure   must  be   designed   with   a   factor  of   safety   of   not   less 
than   six    (6),   and   shall   in   every   case  be  tested   to   a   pressure   of   not   less   than    one 
hundred  and   fifty    (150)    pounds   after   installation. 

Rule  14.     Controlling  Valves. 

1.  In  fuel  oil  piping  systems,  readily  accessible  shut-off  valves  shall  be  provided 
in  the  supply  line  of  fuel  oils  as  near  to  tank  as  practicable,  on  both  sides  of  any 
strainer  which  may  be  installed  in  pipe  lines,  in  the  main  line  inside  the  building, 
at  each  oil  consuming  device,  and  a  gate  valve  in  the  discharge  and  suction  pipes 
near  the  pump.  Provision  shall  be  made  to  insure  the  cessation  of  oil  supply  from 
tank  to  the  burner  when  the  pump  is  not  in  work. 
Rule  15.  Heating. 

1.  All   heating  to   reduce   viscosity  of  fuel   oils  in   storage   tanks   in  any   building 
shall    be    only    by    means    of    hot    water    coils    and    the    oil    shall    not    be   heated    above 
one  hundred  and  forty   (140)    degrees  Fahrenheit. 

2.  All    outside    pipes    subject   to    freezing   shall    be    protected    with    a    heating   line 
of  steam  or  hot  water. 

Rule  16.     Fuel  Oil  Burners. 

1.  Burners    containing    chambers    which    allow    dangerous    accumulation    of    gases 
or    containing    oil-conveying    pipe    or    parts    subject   to    intense    heat    or    stoppage    from 
carbonization   are  prohibited. 

2.  Oil    shall    be    supplied    through    orifices    not    larger    than    necessary    to    supply 
sufficient    oil     for    maximum     burning    conditions    when    the    controlling     valves    are 
wide  open. 

3.  The  mechanism  shall  be  so  designed  that,  where  manual  or  automatic  control 
is   provided,   operated   at  some   distance   from   the  burner,   the   flame   cannot  be   extin- 
guished   except    by    closing    the    main    shut-off    valve    in    line    to    burner.      Approved 
gas-pilot  lights  or  equivalent  will  be  acceptable. 

4.  A  check  valve  of  approved  type  shall  be  installed  in  each  oil,   steam  and  air 
line  near  the  burner. 

5.  Smoke   pipes    shall   be    installed   between   the   burners   and   chimney,   and   any 
dampers   in   smoke   pipes   shall   not   exceed    eighty    (80)    per   cent   of   the   area  of  the 
pipe.      Necessary   regulation    of   draft   shall   be   accomplished   by   dampers    in    the   fire 
or  ash  pit  doors. 


108  FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 

6.  Burners   shall   be   installed  with   overflow   attachment  so   arranged   that   surplus 
oil   will    drain    by   gravity    from   the   burner    into    a    substantially    constructed    reservoir. 
Such   reservoir   shall   be  constructed   of   brass,   copper  or   galvanized   iron  plate   not   less 
than    No.    18    U.    S.    gauge    in    thickness   and    shall   be   provided    with   a    vent    pipe   with 
weatherproof    hood    leading   outside    the   building. 

7.  The    supply    of    oil    and    air    or    steam    for    atomizing    shall    be    interlocked,    so 
that  if  the  steam  or  air  should  fail  the  oil  will  be  automatically   shut  off. 

Rule    17.      Fuel    Oil    Fire    Extinguishing    Equipment. 

1.  Every    tank    with    a    capacity    of    over    ten    thousand    (10,000)    gallons    shall    be 
equipped    with    a    system    of    steam    pipes,    blanketing    gas    or    other    approved    system 
for  use  in  case  of  fire,  so  arranged  and  installed  as  to  adequately  protect  surrounding 
property. 

2.  When  steam  is  used,  the  steam  supply  pipe  shall  not  be  less  than  one-half  (l/2) 
inch    in    size,    the    boilers    shall    be    conveniently    located,    and    shall    be    controlled    by 
valves  outside  the  tank  enclosure. 

Rule   18.      General    Devices. 

All  devices  used  in  connection,  with  oil-burning  apparatus,  such  as  indicators, 
gauges  and  burners,  shall  be  of  such  character  as  to  minimize  leakage  and  exposure 
of  oil,  and  shall  be  connected  through  substantial  fittings.  Devices  which  are  subject 
to  breakage  and  escape  of  oil  shall  be  prohibited. 

Thermometers    with    large    clear    reading    scales,    placed    in    approved    thermometer 
wells    with    screwed   top    connections,    shall    be    installed    at    convenient   and    prominent 
positions   in    the    oil    supply   pipe   lines   between    the    service    tank   and   the    pumps   and 
also   between  the  pumps  and  the  burner,  to  indicate  the  temperature  of   the   oil. 
Rule  19.     Instruction   Cards. 

Cards    giving    complete    instructions    for    the    care    and    operation    of    the    fuel    oil 
system    shall   be   permanently    fixed   near   the   apparatus. 
Rule  20.     Operation  of  Plant. 

Such   fuel   oil-burning  plants  may   be  operated   only  by  a  licensed   engineer   or  by 
a   licensed   operator   who   shall   be   a   citizen   of   the    United    States,   who    can    read    and 
write   the    English   language,   and   who   is    familiar   with   the   practical   working    of   such 
plant,  as  evidenced  by  the  certificate  of  the  Fire  Commissioner. 
Rule   21.     Installation. 

No  installation  of  fuel  oil  plants  shall  be  commenced  until  after  the  approval 
of  plans  by  the  Fire  Commissioner,  which  plans  shall  be  submitted  to  him  for 
examination,  together  with  the  certificate  of  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  that 
the  proposed  construction  of  the  enclosure  and  the  location  of  tanks  is  in  accordance 
with  the  requirements  of  the  Building  Code  and  of  these  Rules. 

Adopted,   Nov.   6,   1919.  JOHN   P>    LEO>   Chairman. 

WM.   WIRT   MILLS,   Secretary. 


CHICAGO  REGULATIONS 

Chicago's  regulations  for  the  storage  and  use  of  fuel  oil  are 
as  follows: 

STORAGE  AND  USE  OF  FUEL  OIL  AND  THE  CONSTRUCTION  AND 

INSTALLATION  OF  OIL  BURNING  EQUIPMENT 

Section  76.  Large  supply  or  storage  tanks  for  oils  having  a  flash  point  above 
150  degrees  Fahrenheit  shall  be  constructed  in  the  manner  hereinafter  set  forth. 

CAPACITY  AND  LOCATION  OF  TANKS. 

(a)  Tanks  shall  be  so  located  as  to  avoid  undue  exposure  of  adjacent  com- 
bustible property,  and  in  all  cases  where  a  doubt  exists  as  to  the  proper  location 
of  same  under  the  terms  of  this  ordinance  the  location  shall  be  subject  to  the 
approval  of  the  Chief  of  Fire  Prevention  and  Public  Safety.  The  distances  specified 
in  the  following  table  are  for  plants  or  storage  tanks  located  outside  the  districts 
defined  in  Section  37  of  this  ordinance: 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  109 

TABLE    1. 

MINIMUM   DISTANCE  OF  TANKS 
To  line  of  adjoining 
unprotected  building 

or  property  To  line  of  To  line  of 

Capacity  which  may  adjoining  any  existing          To  any 

in  gallons  be  built  upon     protected  building  frame  building     other  tank 

1,000     10  feet  5  feet  20  feet  2  feet 

2,000     20  feet  10  feet  40  feet  2  feet 

16,000 25   feet  15   feet  50  feet  2  feet 

24,000    30   feet  20   feet  60  feet  2   feet 

36,000      40  feet  25   feet  80  feet  3  feet 

48,000     50   feet  35  feet  100.  feet  3   feet 

Provided,  that  the  aggregate  capacity  of  all  tanks  in  any  one  yard,  enclosure 
or  plant  shall  not  exceed  300,000  gallons,  and  no  one  tank  shall  contain  in  excess 
of  48,000  gallons. 

(b)  Each   above   ground   tank   shall   be   surrounded   with   an   embankment   or   dike 
not   less   than   four   feet   in    height   and   having   a   capacity   not   less   than    fifty   per  cent 
greater  than   the  tank   to  be   protected. 

(c)  Embankments   or    dikes    shall    be    made   of    reinforced    concrete    or   brick   and 
shall  have  a  crown  of  not  less  than  one  foot  and  a  slope  of  at  least  one  and  one-half 
inches  to  the  foot  on  both  sides'. 

(d)  Embankments   or   dikes  shall   be   continuous,   with   no  openings   for   piping  or 
roadways.      Piping    shall   be    laid    well    below   the    foundation    of   the    embankment.     At 
points   where    it   is    necessary   to    pass    over    the    embankment,    properly    built    steps    or 
concrete   roadways   shall   be   provided. 

(e)  Adjacent    tanks    shall    be    protected    against    danger    from    each    other    by    fire 
walls  of  brick  or  concrete  not  less  than   12   inches  thick  and  extending   not  less   than 
3    feet    above    and    beyond    each    tank.      Each    such    fire    wall    shall    have    a    fender    or 
return   wall  of  the   same   height   and  thickness   at   each   end,    and   extending   3    feet   on 
each   side  of  said   wall. 

Section  77. 

HEIGHT  OF  TANKS. 

(a)  Vertical  tanks  shall  be  so  constructed  as  not  to  exceed  thirty  feet  in  height. 

MATERIAL   AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF    TANKS. 

(b)  Tanks  shall  be  constructed  of  iron  or  steel  plates  of  a  gauge  depending  upon 
the   capacity   as   specified   in   the   following  table: 

TABLE  2. 

THICKNESS   OF   METAL  FOR  ABOVE   GROUND   TANKS. 
Horizontal. 

^— Minimum  Thickness— > 
Maximum  Diameter  .  Heads  Shell 

Not  over  5   feet -fg  in.  &  in. 

5   feet  to     8   feet %   in.  ^  in. 

8    feet   to   11   feet ^   in.  J4   in. 

Vertical. 

Capacity  5,000  gallons  or  less;   diameter  less  than  40  feet: 
Bottom,  No.     8  U.   S.   Standard  Gauge 

Bottom  Ring,  No.  8  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge 
Other  Rings,  No.  10  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge 
Top,  No.  12  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge 

Capacity   10,000   gallons   or  less;   diameter  less  than   40   feet: 
Bottom,  No.     8  U.  S.   Standard  Gauge 

Bottom  Ring,  No.  7  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge 
Other  Rings,  No.  8  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge 
Top,  No.  12  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge 

(c)  Other  vertical  tanks  shall  be  of  material  having  a  thickness  of  not  less  than 
indicated   in   the   following  table,   in   which   the   figures   in   all   columns,   excepting   the 
first,  refer  to  U.  S.  Standard  Gauge: 


110  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

2nd  3rd  4th  5th  6th 

Diameter  Top  Ring          Ring        Ring  Ring  Ring 

Feet  Top          Ring  from          from         from  from  from          Bottom 

Top          Top          Top  Top  Top 

80 10  7  7  3  0  3-0  5-0  10 

75   10  7  7  4  1  2-0  4-0  10 

70   10  7  7  4  1  2-0  4-0  10 

65   10  7  7  5  1  0  3-0  10 

60   10  7  7  5  2  0  2-0  10 

55   10  7  7  5  3  1  2-0  10 

50   10  7  7  7  4  1  0  10 

45 10  7  7  7  5  3  1  10 

40   and   less... 10  77753  2  10 

All   riveted   joints   shall   have    an    efficiency    of   at    least    60   per   cent. 
Tanks  of  greater  capacity  than  as  specified  above  shall  be  of  material  of  sufficient 
thickness    to    safely    hold    the    contents    and    proportionately    heavier,     subject    to    the 
approval   of  the  Chief  of   Fire  Prevention  and  Public   Safety. 

(d)  Materials  to  be  used  in  smaller  tanks  shall  be  as  required  in  Table  3,   Sec- 
tion 43  of  this  ordinance. 

(e)  All  joints   of   such   tanks   shall   be   riveted   and   soldered,   riveted   and   caulked, 
brazed,   welded   or   made  by   some   equally    satisfactory   approved   process.     Tanks  must 
be    tight    and    sufficiently    strong    to    bear    without    injury    the    most    severe    strains    to 
which   they   are   liable   to   be   subjected   in   transportation    or   use.      Tanks   shipped   com- 
plete   must    be    suitably    reinforced    to    prevent   injury    to    joints. 

(f)  All   tanks  shall   be   provided  with   a   vent  pipe  terminating  in   a   weatherproof 
hood   containing  a   non-corrodible   screen.      In   case   such   vent   pipe   is   not   permanently 
open    a    suitable    safety    relief    must    be    provided.      In    all    cases    where,    in    order    to 
provide    a   means   for   relieving   pressure,    manhole    covers   are   not   provided    with    bolts 
or   clamps   the    openings    must    be    protected   by    a   non-corrodible    wire    mesh    screen    cf 
not   less   than    20x20    meshes    per    square   inch,    which    may    be    removable   but   must    be 
normally  securely  held  in  place. 

(g)  Outside   surfaces  of  tanks  shall  be  thoroughly   protected  against   corrosion   by 
a    suitable    rust-resisting    paint. 

SUPPORTS  FOR  TANKS 

Section  78.  All  tanks  shall  be  set  upon  a  substantial  foundation,  and,  when  ele- 
vated above  the  ground  level,  supports  shall  be  of  non-combustible  material,  with  the 
exception  of  suitable  wooden  cushions.  All  above  ground  tanks  shall  be  thoroughly 
£"ounded  electrically. 

MEANS    FOR    EXTINGUISHING    FIRES    IN    TANKS 

Section  79.  Tanks  and  dikes  shall  be  equipped  with  suitable  means  or  devices, 
satisfactory  to  the  Chief  of  Fire  Prevention  and  Public  Safety,  for  extinguishing  or 
retarding  fire  in  such  tanks  or  dikes. 

PUMPS 

Section  80.  All  pumps  used  in  connection  with  the  supply  and  discharge  of  any 
tank  constructed  under  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  shall  be  located  outside  of  the 
reservoir  walls,  and  at  such  a  point  that  they  will  be  accessible  at  all  times,  even  if 
the  oil  in  the  tank  or  reservoir  should  be  on  fire. 

PIPE    CONNECTIONS 

Section  81.  (a)  All  oil  conveying  pipes  shall  be  laid  underground  and  such  pipes 
shall  not,  under  any  circumstances,  break  through  the  reservoir  walls  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

(b)  The  above  provision  does  not  apply  to  pipes  laid  well  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground. 

CONTROLLING  VALVES 

Section  82.  (a)  There  shall  be  a  gate  valve  located  at  the  tank  in  each  oil  con- 
veying pipe.  In  case  two  or  more  tanks  are  cross-connected  there  shall  be  a  gate 
valve  at  each  tank  in  each  cross-connection. 

(b)  There  shall  be  a  gate  valve  m  the  discharge  and  suction  pipes  near  the 
pump  and  a  check  valve  in  the  discharge  pipe,  located  underground. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  111 

INDICATOR. 

Section  83.  There  shall  be  a  reliable  indicator  provided  for  each  tank  to  show 
the  level  of  the  oil  in  the  tank.  Such  indicator  shall  be  of  such  a  form  that  its 
derangement  will  not  permit  the  escape  of  oil. 

PLANS   AND   SPECIFICATIONS. 

Section  84.  A  complete  set  of  plans  and  specifications  of  any  proposed  installa- 
tion under  the  provisions  of  this  chapter  shall  be  submitted  to  the  Bureau  of  Fire 
Prevention  and  Public  Safety  before  beginning  construction. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
INDIVIDUAL  OIL-BURNING  EQUIPMENTS  FOR  OTHER  THAN  HOUSEHOLD 

PURPOSES. 
Section  85.     CAPACITY  AND   LOCATION  OF  TANKS. 

(a)  Within  the   districts  defined  in    Section   37   of  this   ordinance,  all  tanks   con- 
structed  under   the   provisions  of   this  chapter   shall   be   located   underground   with   the 
tops  of  such   tanks  not  less   than    2   feet  below  the   surface   of  the  ground   and  below 
the  level  of  the  lowest  pipe  in  the  building  to  be  supplied.      Such  tanks  may  be  per- 
mitted  underneath   a   building   if   buried   at   least   two    feet   below   the    lowest   floor,    if 
such  floor  is  of  concrete  not  less  than  six  inches  thick.     All  tanks  shall   be   set  on  a 
firm  foundation  and  surrounded  with  soft  earth  or  sand,  well  tamped  into  place.     No 
air  space  shall  be  allowed  immediately  outside  of  such  tanks.     Any  such  tank  may  have 
a  test  well,  provided   such  test  well   extends  to   near  the   bottom  of  the   tank  and  the 
top  end  shall  be  hermetically  sealed  and  locked  except  when  necessarily  open.     When 
any    such    tank   provided   with   a  test   well    is   located   underneath    a   building,    the   test 
well  shall   extend  at  least   12    feet  above  source   of  supply.     The  limit  of  storage  per- 
mitted  shall   depend  upon  the   location   of  such   tanks  with   respect   to   the  building  to 
be  supplied  and  adjacent  buildings,   in   accordance   with   the   following  table: 

TABLE  3. 
PERMISSIBLE    AGGREGATE    CAPACITY    IF    LOWER    THAN    ANY    PORTION 

OF  A  BUILDING  WITHIN  RADIUS   SPECIFIED. 
Capacity  Radius 

30,000    gallons    50  feet 

20,000    gallons    30  feet 

15,000    gallons    20  feet 

11,500   gallons    10  feet 

10,000    gallons    Less  than  10  feet 

(b)  When    located    underneath    a    building,    no    tank    shall    exceed    a    capacity    of 

10.000  gallons,  and  the  basement  floors  of  such  building  are  to  be  provided  with  ample 
means   of   support   independent   of  any  tank   or   concrete   casing   of   same. 

(c)  Outside  of  the  district  defined  in  Section  37  of  this  ordinance,  above  ground 
storage  tanks  may  be  permitted  as  specified  in  Table  1,  Section  76,  of  this  ordinance: 
Provided,  that  drainage  away  from  combustible  property  in  case  of  breakage  of  tanks 
shall  be  arranged  for  same  or  that  dikes  shall  be  built  as  provided  for  in   Section  76 
of  this  ordinance. 

(d)  When  above  ground  tanks  are  used  all  piping  must  be  so  arranged  that  in 
case  of  breakage  of  such  piping  the  oil  well  will  not  be  drained  from  the  tanks.     This 
requirement    shall    be    understood    as    prohibiting    the    use    of    any    gravity    feed    from 
storage  tanks. 

MATERIAL  AND   CONSTRUCTION   OF  TANKS. 

Section  86.  (a)  All  such  tanks  shall  be  constructed  of  iron  or  steel  plate  of  a 
gauge  depending  upon  the  capacity  as  specified  in  the  following  tables: 

TABLE   4. 

Underground  tanks  inside  of  the  districts  defined  in  Section  37  of  this  ordinance, 
or  within   10  feet  of  a  building  when  outside   such  districts. 
Capacity— Gallons  Min.  Thickness  of  Material 

1    to         560 14  U.    S.    Standard   Gauge 

561    to      1,100 12  U.    S.    Standard   Gauge 

1,101    to      4,000 7  U.    S.    Standard    Gauge 

4,001    to    10,500 Yi   in. 

10,501    to    20,000 Tsg   in. 

20.001  to    30,000 y&   in. 


112  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

TABLE  5. 

Underground    tanks    outside    of    the    districts    denned    in    Section    37    of    this    ordi- 
nance,  provided   the   tanks  are   10   feet   or   more   from   a  building. 
Capacity — Gallons  Min.  Thickness  of  Material 

1    to         560 18  U.    S.    Standard   Gauge 

31    to         350 16  U.    S.    Standard   Gauge 

351    to      1,100 .  14   U.    S.    Standard    Gauge 

1,101    to      4,000 7  U.    S.    Standard    Gauge 

4,001    to    10,500 J4   in. 

10,501    to    20,000 T5S   in. 

20,001    to    30,000 y&   in. 

Tanks  of  greater  capacity  than  30,000  gallons  must  be  made  of  proportionately 
heavier  material,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  Chief  of  Fire  Prevention  and  Public 
Safety. 

(b)  All   joints   of   such   tanks   shall  be   riveted   and   soldered,   riveted   and   caulked, 
welded    or    brazed    together    or    made    by    some    equally    satisfactory    approved    process. 
Tanks   must   be   tight   and    sufficiently   strong   to    bear   without    injury    the    most    severe 
strains  to  which  they  are  liable  to  be  subjected  in  practice.     The   shells   of  tanks   shall 
be  properly  reinforced  where  connections  are  made,  and  all  connections  shall,  as  far  as 
practicable,    be    made    through   the    upper    side   of   tanks   above   the    oil    level. 

(c)  All  such  tanks  shall  be  thoroughly  coated  on  the  outside  with  tar,  asphaltum 
or    other    suitable    rust-resisting   material. 

FILL  AND   VENT   PIPES 

Section  87.  (a)  Each  underground  storage  tank  having  a  capacity  of  over  1,000 
gallons  shall  be  provided  with  a  vent  pipe  at  least  1  inch  in  diameter  extending  from 
the  top  of  the  tank  to  a  point  outside  of  the  building.  Such  vent  pipe  shall  termi- 
nate at  a  point  at  least  12  feet  above  the  level  of  the  top  of  the  highest  tank  car  or 
other  reservoir  from  which  the  storage  tank  maybe  filled.  The  terminal  of  such  vent 
pipe  shall  be  provided  with  a  hood  or  gooseneck  protected  by  a  non-corrodible  screen 
and  shall  be  located  remote  from  fire  escapes,  and  never  nearer  than  3  feet,  meas- 
ure-d  horizontally  and  vertically,  from  any  window  or  other  opening.  Vent  pipes 
from  two  or  more  tanks  may  be  connected  to  one  upright,  provided  the  connection 
is  made  at  a  point  at  least  one  foot  above  the  level  of  the  source  of  supply. 

(b)  Tanks   having  a   capacity    of    less   than    1,000   gallons    may    be    provided    with 
combined  fill  and  vent  pipes,  if  the  same  are  so  arranged  that  the  fill  pipe  cannot  be 
opened    without    opening   the   vent   pipe,    and    such   pipes   terminate    in    a    metal   box   or 
casting  provided  with   a   lock. 

(c)  Fill    pipes    for  tanks   which   are    installed   with   permanently    open    vent    pipes 
shall    be    provided    with    metal    covers    or    boxes    which    are    to    be    kept    locked    except 
during   filling   operations. 

(d)  Fill  and  vent  pipes  for  tanks  located  under  buildings  shall  be  so  constructed 
that  they  will   run  underneath  the  concrete  floor  to   the   outside  of  the   building. 

FILTERS. 

Section  88.  Suitable  approved  filters  or  strainers  for  the  oil  stored  or  used  in 
any  such  tanks  shall  be  installed  and  the  same  shall,  wherever  practicable,  be  located 
in  the  supply  line  before  reaching  the  pump.  Filters  shall  be  arranged  so  as  to  be 
readily  accessible  for  cleaning. 

FEED   PUMPS. 

Section  89.  (a)  All  feed  pumps  used  for  any  installation  under  the  provisions  of 
this  chapter  must  be.  of  approved  design,  secure  against  leaks.  Any  stuffing  box  in 
connection  therewith,  if  used,  shall  be  provided  with  a  removable  cupped  gland  designed 
to  compress  the  packing  against  the  shaft  and  arranged  so  as  to  facilitate  removal. 
Packing  affected  by  the  oil  must  not  be  used. 

(b)  Such  feed  pumps  shall  be  arranged  so  that  dangerous  pressures  will  not  be 
obtained  in  any  part  of  the  system,  and  such  feed  pumps  shall  be  inter-connected  with 
the  pressure  air  supply  to  the  burners  in  order  to  prevent  flooding. 

GAUGE  GLASSES  AND  PET  COCKS. 

Section  90.  Glass  gauges,  the  breakage  of  which  would  allow  the  escape  of  oil, 
are  hereby  prohibited.  Pet  cocks  shall  not  be  used  on  oil  carrying  parts  of  the  system. 


DISTRIBUTION   AND    STORAGE  113 

RECEIVERS   OR   ACCUMULATORS. 

Section  91.  (a)  Whenever  receivers  or  accumulators  are  used,  they  shall  be 
designed  so  as  to  secure  a  factor  of  safety  of  not  less  than  6  and  must  be  subjected 
to  a  pressure  test  of  not  less  than  twice  the  working  pressure. 

(b)  The  capacity   of  oil   chamber   must   not   exceed   ten   gallons. 

(c)  Such   receivers   or   accumulators   shall  be   equipped   with   pressure   gauge. 

(d)  They    shall   also    be   provided   with   an   automatic    relief   valve    set    to    operate 
at    a    safe    pressure    and    connected    by    an    overflow    pipe    to    the    supply    tank,    and    so 
arranged    that    the    oil    will    automatically    drain    back    to    the    supply    tank    immediately 
on    closing   down    the    pump. 

AUXILIARY  TANKS. 

Section  92.  (a)  Wherever  auxiliary  tanks  are  used,  their  capacity  shall  not  exceed 
ten  gallons. 

(b)  They    shall    be    of   substantial    construction,    equipped    with    an    overflow,    and 
so  arranged   that  the   oil   will   automatically   drain   back  to   the   supply  tank   on    shutting 
down  the  pump,  thereby  leaving  not  over  one  gallon  where  necessary  for  priming,   etc. 

(c)  If  such  auxiliary  tanks  are  vented,  the  opening  shall  be  at  the  top,  and  such 
opening   may    be    connected    with    the    outside    vent    pipe    from    the    storage    tank    above 
the  level  of  the   source   of   supply. 

PIPING. 

Section  93.  (a)  Standard  full  weight  wrought  iron,  steel  or  brass  pipe  with  sub- 
stantial fittings  shall  be  used  and  shall  be  carefully  protected  against  injury.  Piping 
under  pressure  must  be  designed  to  secure  a  factor  of  safety  of  not  less  than  6,  and 
after  installation  the  same  must  be  tested  to  a  pressure  not  less  than  twice  the  work- 
ing pressure. 

(b)  All   piping  shall  be  run  as  directly  as  possible,  and   laid   so  that  the  pipes  are 
pitched   toward    the    supply    tanks   without    traps. 

(c)  Overflow   and   return   pipes   shall   be   at   least    one    size   larger   than   the   supply 
pipes,   and    nc    pipe   shall    be   less   than    one-half   inch    in    diameter. 

(d)  All    connections    shall    be    perfectly    tight    with    well-fitted    joints.      Unions,    if 
used,   shall   be   of  approved   type,   having  at  least  one   face  of  the  joint   made   of  brass 
and   having   conically    faced    seats,   obviating   the   use   of   packing   or   gaskets. 

(e)  Pipes  leading  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  shall  be  cased  or  jacketed  wherever 
necessary   to    prevent   loosening   or   breakage,   and   proper   allowance    shall    be   made    for 
expansion   and   contraction,   jarring  and   vibration. 

(f)  Connections    to    outside    tanks    shall    be    laid    below    the    frost    line    and    shall 
not   be    located    near   nor    placed    in    the    same    trench    with    other    piping. 

(g)  Openings    for    pipes    through    outside    walls    shall    be    securely    cemented    and 
made  oil  tight. 

VALVES,   ETC. 

Section  94.  (a)  Readily  accessible  shut-off  valves  shall  be  provided  in  the  sup- 
ply line  as  near  to  the  tank  as  practicable  and  additional  shut-offs  shall  be  installed 
in  the  main  line  inside  of  the  building  and  at  each  oil  consuming  device. 

(b)  Controlling   valves   in   which   oil   under   pressure   is   in   contact    with   the    stem 
shall    be    provided    with    stuffing    boxes    of    liberal    size    containing    removable    cupped 
glands   designed   to   compress  the   packing   against   the  valve   stem,   and   arranged   so   as 
to   facilitate   removal.      Packing  affected   by   the  oil   must   not   be   used. 

(c)  Approved    shut-offs    for    the    oily    supply    in    case    of    breakage    of    pipes    of 
excessive  leaking  in  the  building  shall  be  installed. 

Section  95.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Chief  of  Fire  Prevention  and  Public 
Safety  to  enforce  all  the  provisions  of  this  ordinance,  and  he  shall  have  full  power  to 
pass  upon  any  questions  arising  under  the  provisions  of  this  ordinance,  subject  to 
the  conditions,  modifications  and  limitations  contained  therein,  and  he  shall  have 
similar  power  and  authority  in  and  about  the  enforcement  of  this  ordinance  as  is 
now  granted  to  him  by  the  terms  and  provisions  of  an  ordinance  "Creating  a  Bureau 
of  Fire  Prevention  and  Public  Safety,"  passed  by  the  City  Council  on  the  22nd  day 
of  July,  1912,  and  appearing  on  pages  1543  to  1620,  inclusive,  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Proceedings  of  said  date,  and  all  ordinances  amendatory  thereof  and  supplementary 
thereto. 

Section  96.  Article  XVII  of  an  ordinance  "Creating  a  Bureau  of  Fire  Preven- 
tion and  Public  Safety,"  passed  by  the  City  Council  on  the  22nd  day  of  July,  1912, 


114  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

and  appearing  on  pages  1543  to  1620,  inclusive,  of  the  Journal  of  the  Proceedings  of 
said  date,  and  all  ordinances  amendatory  of  and  supplementary  to  said  Article  XVII 
are  hereby  repealed,  and  Sections  1683  to  1692,  both  inclusive,  and  Sections  691  to 
694 y3,  both  inclusive,  of  The  Chicago  Code  of  1911,  and  all  amendments  thereto,  are 
hereby  repealed. 

Section  97.  Penalty.  Any  person,  firm  or  corporation  that  violates,  neglects  of 
refuses  to  comply  with,  or  resists  the  enforcement  of,  any  of  the  provisions  of  this 
ordinance,  shall  be  fined  not  less  than  twenty-five  dollars  ($25)  nor  more  than  two 
hundred  dollars  ($200)  for  each  offense,  and  every  such  person  or  corporation  shall 
be  deemed  guilty  of  a  separate  offense  for  every  day  on  which  such  violation,  neglect 
or  refusal  shall  continue. 

Section  98.  This  ordinance  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force  from  and  after  its 
passage  and  due  publication. 

Fuel  oil  is  being  used  as  a  substitute  for  coal  in  so  many 
small  industrial  plants,  office  buildings,  hotels,  apartment  houses 
and  residences  that  a  distribution  problem  has  been  created  which 
only  the  motor  truck  can  solve  arid  at  the  present  time  the  motor 
truck  supplements  railways,  waterways  and  pipe  lines  in  the  de- 
livery of  fuel  oil  from  the  refinery  to  the  ultimate  consumer. 
Competition  in  the  oil  business  is  very  keen  and  the  retaining  of 
customers  depends  very  largely  upon  the  service  rendered.  Trans- 
portation from  central  stations  to  the  ultimate  consumer  must  be 
reliable,  elastic  and  economical.  The  use  of  the  motor  truck  in 
fuel  oil  delivery  is  described  by  Mr.  Alfred  F.  Masurya  as  fol- 
lows: "What  rail  and  waterways  are  to  the  industry  so  far  as 
the  long  haul  is  concerned,  the  motor  truck  is  to  the  delivery  of 
supplies  and  products  in  and  between  communities.  The  opera- 
tion or  administration  of  each  distributing  center  is  independent 
of  the  other ;  that  is,  each  center  is  a  unit,  yet  a  part  of  the  whole. 
The  area  of  each  distributing  center,  the  frequency  of  compara- 
tively long  hauls,  repetitive  delivery  of  large  loads,  the  necessity 
of  rapid  and  certain  distribution  regardless  of  climatic  or  road 
conditions,  have  called  the  motor  truck  into  general  use  and 
subordinated,  if  not  eliminated,  the  use  of  the  horse.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  a  1^-ton  truck  will  replace  not  less  than  two 
2-horse-drawn  wagons  of  700-gallon  capacity,  while  the  capacity 
of  the  tank  or  motor  truck  is  650  to  675  gallons.  In  some  in- 
stances, however,  larger  trucks  will  displace  from  six  to  nine 
horses  and  two  or  three  horse-drawn  wagons  and  effect  a  con- 
siderable saving  in  labor.  A  2^ -ton  truck  is  usually  operated  by 
one  man.  Larger  units  usually  have  a  helper.  This,  however, 
does  not  hold  true  in  every  case.  In  a  well-regulated  concern  a 
study  is  made  by  a  traffic  man  of  the  conditions  under  which 

a.     The  Petroleum  Handbook,  Andros,  p.  158. 


DISTRIBUTION    AND    STORAGE 


115 


each  truck  operates  and  the  labor  supplies  depend  on  delivery 
conditions.  While  it  is  usually  admitted  that  in  a  short  radius 
of  ten  miles  the  teams,  from  a  money  standpoint,  are  the  most 
economical  to  operate,  it  is  true  that  it  is  much  easier  to  obtain 
individual  help  to  operate  motor  trucks  than  it  is  to  drive  teams. 
The  truck  has  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  perform  the  work 
more  satisfactorily  in  the  heat  of  the  summer  and  in  the  intense 
cold  of  the  winter  season.  In  other  words,  a  truck  is  a  more 
flexible  unit  and  meets  more  of  the  conditions.  For  this  reason 
it  gives  better  service  to  the  trade.  These  considerations  are 


FIG.  29.     A  Tank  Truck. 

causing  trucks  to  replace  horses  in  most  instances.  The  motor 
truck  takes  up  the  delivery  of  oil  where  the  railway,  the  water- 
way and  the  pipe  line  leave  off.  Only  when  a  station  runs  out 
of  a  supply  and  it  is  impossible  to  deliver  a  new  supply  in  time 
by  rail,  is  the  motor  truck  called  into  use  where  the  railroad 
would  otherwise  be  used.  The  type  of  truck  used  in  hauling 
from  refineries  to  the  central  stations  is  a  Sy2  or  a  7^2-ton  ca- 
pacity, the  size  depending  upon  the  road  conditions  and  local 
road  regulations  or  city  ordinances.  The  most  economical  unit 
for  hauling  from  a  central  station  in  the  country  or  smaller  cities 


116  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

covering  a  mileage  of  60  to  65  per  day  is  a  2l/2 -ton  truck,  whereas 
in  the  larger  centers  the  3^ -ton  truck  is  the  one  mostly  used, 
covering  a  radius  of  35  to  40  miles  per  day.  In  the  delivery 
of  fuel  oil  in  what  is  known  as  bulk  deliveries,  motor  trucks  of 
the  following  capacities  are  advisable  :  2^2 -ton  truck,  650  gallons  ; 
3l/2 -ton  truck,  1,000  to  1,200  gallons,  depending  on  road  condi- 
tions; Sy2-ton  truck,  1,350  to  1,500  gallons;  7>^-ton  truck,  1,800 
to  2,000  gallons.  With  the  present  road  and  bridge  conditions 
the  2,000-gallon  tank  is  too  large.  On  good  roads  and  pavements 
the  larger  capacities  can  be  used  successfully  and  economically. 
During  the  war  one  or  two  concerns  used  tanks  of  this  capacity 
when  the  deliveries  from  refineries  to  central  points  were  held 
up  by  the  congestion  on  the  railroads. 

In  some  cases  where  the  tanks  are  in  inaccessible  locations, 
it  is  necessary  to  deliver  the  oil  to  containers  on  a  higher  level 
than  the  vehicle.  In  such  cases  a  pump  is  usually  installed  upon 
the  truck  which  is  operated  by  power  delivered  from  the  motor, 
otherwise  no  special  loading  equipment  is  required  in  the  handling 
of  oil.  Delivery  hours  run  from  7:00  a.  m.  to  6:00  p.  m.  In 
some  cases  they  may  be  a  little  earlier.  Another  advantage  of 
the  motor  truck  is  that  it  cuts  down  the  number  of  hours  a  man 
has  to  work,  because  it  shortens  the  time  necessary  to  make 
deliveries  of  oil.  It  is  very  seldom  that  an  old  employe  who  has 
driven  a  team  for  a  number  of  years  and  is  broken  in  on  a  motor 
truck  wishes  to  go  back  to  the  old  type  of  vehicle.  He  finds  the 
truck  an  interesting  study  and  takes  much  interest  in  and  care 
of  it.  It  has  been  proved  in  most  instances  that  the  old  time 
horse  driver,  who  is  broken  in  and  carefully  instructed,  makes 
a  much  better  motor  truck  driver  than  a  professional  chauffeur. 
The  motor  truck  occupies  a  prominent  place  in  the  delivery  of 
fuel  oil,  a  place  which  cannot  be  filled  by  any  other  method  of 
delivery.  The  motor  truck  possesses  the  speed,  capacity  and  en- 
durance, regardless  of  weather  or  other  conditions,  and  is  far 
more  economical  than  any  other  method.  In  fact,  the 'motor 
truck  generally  proves  to  be  the  most  economical  unit  to  handle. 
The  saving  effected  by  units  of  this  character  is  usually  reflected 
in  the  ultimate  cost  to  the  consumer."  Fig.  29  shows  a  motor 
tank  wagon. 


CHAPTER  VI 

HEATING,   STRAINING,   PUMPING  AND 
REGULATING 

For  the  most  effective  atomization  all  fuel  oil  should  be 
heated  in  order  to  increase  its  fluidity  and  all  fuel  oil  below  20  de- 
grees Baume  gravity  must  be  heated  in  order  to  insure  the  proper 
flow  of  oil  through  the  burners.  Certain  crude  oils  at  the  ordinary 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere  are  of  great  viscosity,  which 
viscosity  increases  as  the  temperature  gets  lower.  At  30°  to 
40°  F.,  which  is  not  an  unusual  outdoor  temperature,  the  fluidity 
of  the  oil  is  so  slight  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  pump  the  oil 
or  to  force  it  to  the  burner.  It  is  therefore  necessary  where  fuel 
oil  is  to  be  used  in  regions  which  are  subjected  to  severe  winter 
temperatures  that  there  should  be  means  for  heating  the  oil  so 
that  the  oil  may  more  readily  flow  to  the  pumps.  The  usual 
manner  of  accomplishing  this  is  not  to  attempt  to  heat  the  whole 
tank  or  bunker  of  oil,  but  simply  to  heat  the  oil  immediately 
surrounding  the  suction  pipe  to  the  pumps.  This  can  be  easily 
accomplished  by  placing  a  coil  of  a  few  turns  of  steam  pipe 
about  the  suction  pipe.  In  all  pipes  intended  for  the  transmission 
of  crude  oil  it  is  desirable  that  connections  should  be  made  to 
them  so  that  steam  can  be  turned  into  the  pipes  after  shutting 
off  the  oil.  These  pipes  can  be  thus  cleaned  by  the  heat  and  the 
force  of  the  blowing  steam,  and  any  deposited  asphalts,  paraffins, 
or  condensed  hydrocarbons  can  be  cleared  out  before  the  pipes 
become  choked  so  as  to  impair  their  efficiency.  The  heating  of 
the  oil  should  be  always  recommended  as  an  aid  to  secure  better 
operation  of  pumps  and  burners,  but,  this  heating  should  never 
be  carried  to  such  a  degree  of  temperature  as  will  cause  de- 
composition of  the  hydrocarbons  of  the  oil.  Heating  fuel  oil 
above  its  flash  point  increases  the  fire  hazard  and  should  be 
avoided. 

One  of  the  best  methods  of  providing  for  uniform  fluidity 
throughout  the  system  is  to  parallel  the  oil  pipe  lines  with  steam 
lines.  When  this  is  done  and  when  a  suitable  pre-heater  is  also 
installed  a  uniform  flow  of  oil  is  provided.  Exhaust  steam  has 
nearly  as  great  a  heat  content  as  live  steam  and  is  usually  used 

117 


118  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

for  heating  oil.  The  fluidity  necessary  to  be  obtained  for  perfect 
atomization  depends  upon  the  capacity  of  the  burner.  Fig.  30 
shows  a  temperature  capacity  curve  for  a  mechanical  oil  burner. 
In  the  case  of  oil  as  heavy  as  10  to  12  degrees  Baume'  or  lower, 
a  separate  heater  should  be  used  with  live  steam  and  exhaust 
steam. 

Various  types  of  heaters  are  on  the  market.  The  heater 
shown  in  fig.  31  can  be  used  with  exhaust  or  live  steam  or  with 
both.  The  oil  enters  at  the  bottom  and  passes  up  through  the 
heater  in  a  thin  film  as  the  oil  passage  is  formed  by  the  space 
between  two  thin  cylinders  placed  concentrically.  Steam  is  ad- 
mitted at  the  top,  surrounds  the  outer  cylinder,  and  also  flows 
into  the  inside  of  the  inner  cylinder  thus  keeping  the  oil  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  by  a  steam  jacket.  The  oil  travels  up  and 
out  the  top  while  the  steam  enters  at  the  top  and  exhaust  from 
the  bottom  so  that  the  hot  oil  leaving  the  heater  is  always  drawn 
from  that  part  of  film  nearest  the  hottest  steam.  The  outer 
steam  space  is  made  by  a  large-sized  pipe  of  suitable  length  which 
surrounds  the  outer  cylinder  mentioned  above.  This  large  pipe 
is  insulated  by  means  of  asbestos  and  magnesia  pipe  covering 
which  reduces  the  radiation  loss  from  the  sides  of  the  heater. 

Fig.  32  shows  a  spiral  oil  heater.  The  oil  entering 
this  heater  unit  between  the  two  shells  takes  a  spiral 
course  upward  to  the  space  between  the  two  shell  heads  from 
whence  it  flows  down  through  the  seamless  steel  coil  and  out  to 
the  discharge  header.  In  the  event  of  an  operator  closing  the 
inlet  and  outlet  oil  valves  without  cutting  out  the  steam  to  heater, 
thereby  causing  the  dead  oil  in  the  unit  to  heat  and  expand  to 
a  pressure  which  might  create  a  rupture,  a  safety  valve  "A" 
is  provided  for  each  unit  and  set  to  operate  before  an  excessive 
pressure  can  be  attained.  Steam  is  admitted  and  condensate 
carried  off  as  shown. 

Fig.  33  shows  the  installation  of  pumps  and  heaters  at  the 
City  and  County  Hospital  power  plant,  San  Francisco. 

When  using  air  either  at  high  or  low  pressure  as  a  spray- 
ing medium  it  is  exceedingly  desirable  that  the  air  be  superheated 
before  passing  to  the  spraying  tip,  as  thereby  a  considerable  gain 
in  efficiency  can  be  anticipated. 

Inasmuch  as  crude  oils  have  been  obtained  from  the  earth 


HEATING   AND   PUMPING 


119 


they  necessarily  carry  more  or  less  sand  or  grit.  The  more 
viscous  the  oil  the  easier  the  sand  and  grit  are  held  in  suspension. 
In  any  installation  of  an  oil  burning  plant  special  provision  should 
be  made  for  straining  out  all  sand  and  foreign  matter.  Sand  in 
oil  not  only  clogs  the  burner  openings  but  also  wears  out  the 
small  annular  nozzles.  Nearly  all  of  the  strainers  inserted  in  oil 
burning  systems  are  simple  in  construction  and  are  often  formed 
of  a  wire-gauze  gasket  set  in  the  joints  of  the  oil  pipe.  In  order 
to  take  out  the  strainer  for  cleaning,  however,  it  is  necessary 
with  such  an  installation  to  unbolt  the  joints  of  pipe  and  the 

TEMPERATURE  OF  OIL,  °F. 

g    i        i        §        g 


250 


g    «0 

ft 

M 

* 

ft    400 


FIG.  30.  Temperature-Capacity  Curve  for  Mechan- 
ical Oil  Burner.  Texas  crude  oil  (gravity,  18°  B., 
flash  point,  240°  F.)  used  in  a  Peabody  burner 
producing  a  round  flame  at  200-pound  pressure. 

more  satisfactory  arrangement  is  to  use  some  strainer  of  the  type 
shown  in  Fig.  34.  Strainers  of  this  type  can  be  easily  removed 
without  tools  or  wrenches.  The  wire-gauze  used  in  strainers 
should  be  made  of  wires  of  a  width  of  mesh  work  equal  to  about 
one-half  the  width  of  the  oil  orifice  in  the  burner.  In  the  best 
practice  a  strainer  is  placed  on  each  side  of  the  oil  pump,  serving 
the  two  purposes  of  preventing  sand  from  entering  the  pump 
and  keeping  any  particles  of  old  packing  or  other  material  from 
the  pump  itself  from  going  through  the  system  into  the  burner. 
Fig.  35  shows  another  type  of  strainer.  By  simply  remov- 
ing one  cap  screw  the  strainer  can  be  withdrawn  from  the  casing 
and  thoroughly  cleaned. 


120 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


Any  water  entering  an  oil  storage  tank  will  settle  to  the 
bottom  of  the  tank.  When  the  oil  is  drawn  from  a  fixed  outlet 
at  the  tank  bottom,  this  water  will  enter  the  system. 

There  is  no  practicable  device  that  will  directly  separate  the 


FIG.    31. 


Heater   Used   with   Live   or 
Exhaust   Steam. 


(Courtesy   of   Tate,.  Jones  &   Co.,    Inc.) 

water  from  the  oil.  This  separation  can  only  be  satisfactorily 
effected  by  allowing  the  water  to  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  tanks 
by  gravity.  It  therefore  follows  that  if  the  suction  to  the  oil 
pumps  are  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  tanks,  water  will  be  often 
drawn  when  only  oil  is  desired.  A  thread  of  water  blown  into 


HEATING  AND  PUMPING 


121 


122  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

the  oil  burner  effectually  extinguishes  the  flame  in  the  furnace, 
and  if  oil  does  not  soon  follow  the  water,  there  may  be  difficulty 
in  relighting  without  introducing  an  outside  flame. 

With  most  burners  it  is  desirable  that  a  uniform  pressure 
should  be  maintained  on  the  oil  circuit  to  the  burner.  If  it 
were  possible  to  keep  the  pumps  automatically  and  perfectly 
regulated,  a  uniform  pressure  could  be  secured.  There  are  many 
devices  on  the  market  which  set  out  to  secure  this  uniformity  of 
action.  Oil-pressure  regulators  similar  to  those  used  as  regula- 
tors on  steam  mains  have  been  tried,  but  in  general  have  been 
found  to  be  unsatisfactory,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  moving 
parts  become  clogged  with  sand  or  hydrocarbon.  A  so-called 
oil  pressure  regulator  used  as  a  single  device  is  seldom  satis- 
factory. A  reliable  plan  is  to  provide  the  oil  chamber  of  the 
pump  with  what  would  correspond  to  an  air  chamber  on  the 
water  pump,  or  to  provide  a  separate  tank  or  chamber  in  which 
a  constant  air  pressure  is  maintained  on  top  of  the  oil  by  addi- 
tional means.  There  are  a  number  of  designs  of  apparatus  on 
the  market  which  contain  this  feature  of  an  oil  air  chamber, 
and  corresponding  regulating  apparatus,  which  have  given  satis- 
faction. Many  of  these  installations  contain  automatic  arrange- 
ments whereby  the  change  of  level  of  the  oil  in  the  chamber 
effects  a  control  of  the  steam  supply  to  the  oil  pump,  and  thus 
affords  an  automatic  method  of  controlling  the  quantity  of  the 
oil  supply  to  the  burner  system.  In  all  oil  installations  it  is  very 
important  that  the  control  of  the  oil  pump  and  of  the  steam  to 
the  burner  or  of  the  compressed  air,  where  air  is  used,  should 
be  so  arranged  that  in  case  the  delivery  of  any  one  of  these  fluids 
is  reduced,  or  interrupted,  a  corresponding  reduction  or  shutting 
off  should  be  effected  in  the  supply  of  the  other  elements.  It 
is  especially  important  that  oil  should  in  no  case  continue  to  be 
forced  or  pumped  to  the  burners  when  the  steam  or  air  required 
for  spraying  is  shut  off,  as  in  such  an  event  the  unsprayed  oil  is 
liable  to  flood  in  upon  the  hot  brickwork  and  a  furnace  explosion 
is  sooner  or  later  likely  to  occur.  The  underwriters'  regulations 
in  many  cases  specifically  require  that  in  the  event  of  the  stoppage 
of  the  oil  flow  to  the  burner  all  the  other  functions  shall  be 
caused  automatically  to  cease.  These  are  precautions  dictated 
by  considerations  of  ordinary  safety,  and  various  applications  of 
valves  and  devices  are  in  the  market  whereby  these  results  can 
be  attained. 


HEATING  AND  PUMPING 


123 


124 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


Fig.  36  shows  a  specially  designed  pumping  system  for  sup- 
plying fuel  oil  in  uniform  quantity  and  at  even  pressure.  It 
consists  of  a  duplex  pump  and  receiver  mounted  on  a  cast-iron 
drip  pan  supported  at  a  convenient  height  on  cast-iron  legs.  The 
pump  takes  the  oil  directly  from  the  storage  tanks  and  at  set 
pressure  automatically  forces  it  through  the  receiver  to  the 


FIG.  34.     A  Simple  Oil  Strainer. 
(Courtesy  G.  E.  Witt  Co.) 

burners,  through  suitable  pipe  lines,  the  machine  serving  one  or 
any  number  of  burners  within  its  capacity  with  equal  uniformity. 
The  receiver  contains  a  coil  of  pipe,  which  can  be  connected  with 
the  exhaust  of  the  pump,  heating  the  oil,  if  necessary,  through 
a  medium  of  water.  A  special  governor  is  furnished  which  auto- 
matically stops  and  starts  the  pump  as  the  pressure  in  the  receiver 
rises  and  falls.  The  receiver  is  specially  equipped  with  the  glass 


FIG.  35.     Another  Type  of  Strainer. 

gauge,  pressure  gauge,  thermometer,  etc.  This  pumping  system 
is  constructed  both  of  single  and  double  type.  In  the  double 
type  one  pump  is  operated  at  a  time,  and  the  other  is  held  in 
reserve  in  case  of  breakdown.  Fig.  37  shows  another  type  of 
pumping  system. 


HEATING  AND  PUMPING 


125 


A  pulsometer  should  be  installed  in  the  line  between  pump 
and  furnace  so  as  to  prevent  variation  of  pressure  due  to  piston 
action.  For  a  3"  feed  line,  a  15"  pipe  5'  long  with  a  provision 
at  the  bottom  for  the  removing  of  sediment  will  be  found  bene- 
ficial. Fig.  38  shows  a  pulsometer. 

Mr.  C.  D.  Stewart  writing  in  Oil  Newsa  states  as  follows : 


FIG.  36.     A  Modern  Pumping   System. 
(Courtesy  W.  N.   Best,  Inc.) 


"On  the  Pacific  Coast  where  oil  burning  was  first  practiced  to 
any  large  degree  automatic  apparatus  has  been  devised  and  de- 
veloped since  the  use  of  fuel  oil  began,  and  today  most  of  the 
plants  in  that  territory  are  equipped  with  mechanical  oil  stokers. 
Automatic  systems  are  firing  boilers  at  high  efficiency  in  plants 


a.  Oil  News,  November  20,  1919,  page  12. 


126 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


of  nearly  every  character,  including  power  stations,  sugar  re- 
fineries, canneries,  spinning  mills,  smelters,  ferry  boats,  river 
boats,  etc.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  describe  a  stoking  system 
operating  on  the  step  principles  and  providing  for  the  accurate 
control  of  the  three  (3)  elements  of  combustion  in  every  step. 


FIG.  37.     Another  Type  of  Pumping   System. 
(Courtesy  of  Staples  &  Pfeiffer.) 

Atomizing  steam,  fuel  oil  and  drafts  are  changed  in  each  step 
of  the  fire  in  proportions  that  give  the  highest  possible  CCX 
throughout  the  entire  range.  Line  drawings,  as  shown,  illustrate 
the  apparatus  as  applied  to  these  installations. 

Fig.  39  is  a  diagrammatic  view  of  the  burner  regulator,  one 
of  which  is  applied  to  each  burner. 


HEATING  AND  PUMPING  127 

Fig.  40  is  a  diagrammatic  view  of  the  Master  Controller 
Set,  controlling  the  entire  plant,  whether  one  or  fifty  boilers. 

Fig.  41  is  a  cross  sectional  view  of  the  Interlocking  Damper 
Device,  the  number  per  plant  varying  according  to  the  work  to 
be  done. 

Briefly,  the  operation  of  this  apparatus  is  as  follows : 

Boiler  steam  pressure  present  at  all  times  above  the  dia- 
phragms of  the  Master  Controller  Set  causes  it  to  function  so  as 
to  step  up  the  fires  in  case  of  a  drop  in  steam  pressure  and  to 


FTG.  38.     A  Pulsometer. 
(Courtesy  W.  N.  Best,  Inc.) 

step  down  the  fires  in  case  of  a  rise  in  steam  pressure.  Fuel  oil, 
which  is  under  pressure  to  the  burners,  is  also  used  as  the  actu- 
ating medium  to  perform  the  work  of  opening  and  closing  the 
oil  and  steam  valves  to  the  burners  and  closing  the  dampers. 
Weights,  as  a  safety  measure,  are  used  to  open  the  dampers. 
The  Master  Controller  Set,  acting  under  the  influence  of  boiler 
steam  pressure,  admits  fuel  oil  pressure  to  the  interlocking 
damper  devices  to  close  the  dampers  and  releases  it  from  the 
damper  devices  to  permit  the  opening  of  the  dampers  by  the 
weights.  The  Interlocking  Damper  Device  was  so  named  because 
of  -its  construction,  which  is  an  application  of  the  principle  used 


128 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


in  railway  switch  and  interlocking  plants.  In  the  performance 
of  its  functions  a  step  up  in  the  fire  cannot  be  brought  about 
until  the  dampers  are  open  an  amount  that  will  give  correct  com- 
bustion for  that  step  of  the  fire,  and  a  step  down  in  the  fire  is 
made  before  the  dampers  close  an  amount  to  give  the  correct 
combustion  for  a  lower  fire. 

The  individual  burner  regulator,  as  illustrated  and  described 
in  this  article,  provides  for  a  three  (3)  stage  fire  on  each  burner, 


FIG.  39.    The  Burner  Regulator. 

however,  more  or  fewer  steps  can  be  provided  where  conditions 
make  it  desirable.  The  regulator  consists  of  three  main  portions : 
One  portion  comprises  fuel  oil  and  atomizing  steam  orifice  valves, 
which  regulate  the  amount  of  fuel  and  atomizing  steam  that  flows 
to  each  burner  in  each  stage  of  the  fire.  Another  portion  com- 
prises plunger  valves  which  govern  two  stages  of  the  fire.  A 
third  portion  comprises  actuating  pistons  which  open  and  close 
the  plunger  valves.  The  three  stages  of  the  fire  are  known  as 
pilot,  medium  and  maximum  fires.  The  pilot  fire  is  not  auto- 
matic and,  therefore,  not  governed  by  a  plunger  valve.  The  size 


HEATING  AND  PUMPING 


129 


of  this  fire  is  determined  by  the  opening  of  the  pilot  orifice  valves 
which  consists  of  one  oil  and  one  steam  valve.    The  medium  fire 


FIG.    40.     The    Master    Controller. 


orifice  valves  govern  the  size  of  the  fire  in  the  second  stage,  but 
no  flow  takes  place  by  these   orifice  valves   until   the  medium 


130  FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 

plunger  valve  is  unseated.  The  maximum  fire  orifice  valves  do 
the  same  for  the  maximum  fire  and  the  maximum  fire  plunger 
valve  starts  and  stops  the  flow  by  the  orifice  valves.  When  the 
installation  is  completed,  each  step  of  the  fire  is  set  according 
to  the  needs  of  the  plant  and  the  drafts  adjusted  to  give  the 
maximum  efficiency  in  each  stage,  and  with  the  fluctuation  in 
steam  pressure,  the  apparatus  will  function  day  after  day  without 
variation  in  efficiency.  The  Master  Controller  Set  is  designed 
to  maintain  steam  pressure  within  3  Ibs.  of  the  maximum  at  all 
times.  The  Master  Controller,  as  illustrated,  comprises  two  (2) 
portions,  but  in  a  number  of  large  power  plants,  the  Master  Con- 
troller Set  comprises  four  (4)  portions  and  the  plant  so  piped 
that  a  group  of  boilers  sufficient  to  carry  the  normal  load  of  the 
plant  is  on  one  portion  of  the  Master  Controller  and  these  boilers 
are  fired  at  their  maximum  rating.  Other  boilers  are  connected 
in  series  with  the  Master  which  functions  only  in  case  an  ab- 
normal load  develops  and  these  boilers  are  used  only  for  the  peak 
load.  In  this  way  still  higher  efficiency  is  realized  by  keeping  a 
certain  group  of  boilers  operating  normally  at  their  designed 
capacity.  There  are  a  number  of  applications  to  this  principle 
which  have  been  made  on  the  Pacific  Coast  due  to  the  flexibility 
of  the  unit  principle.  Still  another  refinement  that  is  interesting 
has  been  worked  out  in  one  or  two  large  power  plants  which  are 
used  as  standby  plants  to  pick  up  the  electric  load  in  case  of  an 
interruption  on  the  hydro  lines.  When  this  interruption  comes,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  the  steam  plant  on  the  line  in  the  shortest 
possible  time,  as  every  second  counts.  Accordingly  the  Master 
Controller  Set,  instead  of  being  connected  to  the  steam  pressure 
at  the  boiler,  is  tapped  into  the  steam  mains  at  the  turbine,  with 
the  result  that  the  instant  the  load  comes  on  the  turbines,  the 
Master  Controller  feels  the  steam  drop  instantly  and  has  the  fires 
under  the  boilers  before  the  steam  gauges  have  recorded  any 
variation.  As  a  result,  one  of  these  plants  has  gone  from  zero 
to  maximum  load  instantly  with  a  maximum  drop  in  steam  pres- 
sure of  only  six  pounds." 

Fig.  42  shows  a  fuel  oil  pump  set  controlled  by  a  spring- 
control  diaphragm  regulator. 

Fig.  43  shows  a  fuel  oil  pumping,  heating  and  regulating 
system  for  power  boilers. 


HEATING  AND  PUMPING 


131 


1.  Body 

2.  Cylinder 

3.  Cylinder  Cap 

4.  14"  Union 

5.  Piston 

6.  Piston  Nut 

7.  Piston  Rod 

8.  Piston  Valve 

9.  Piston  Valve  Stop 

10.  Spring 

11.  Bonnet 

12.  Bonnet  Nut 

13.  Stop  Guide 

14.  Stop 

15.  Sprocket  Chain 

16.  Sprocket 
18.  Gland 


T.  9 
FIG.    41.     THE   INTERLOCKING    DAMPER   DEVICE. 


CHAPTER  VII 
ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOILER  FURNACES 

The  only  object  of  burning  fuel  under  a  boiler  is  to  convey 
heat  to  the  water  inside  the  boiler.  Any  furnace  arrangement 
which  allows  the  heat  provided  by  the  combustion  of  the  fuel  to 
escape  up  the  stack  is  an  inefficient  arrangement.  It  is,  of  course, 
impossible  to  attain  100  percent  efficiency  in  the  burning  of  fuel 
in  furnaces.  It  should  be  emphasized,  however,  that  the  furnace 
is  simply  a  means  of  transferring  to  the  water  the  heat  units 
contained  in  the  fuel. 

In  burning  fuel  oil  under  boilers,  all  of  the  oil  should  be  con- 
sumed before  it  reaches  the  boiler  surface  because  the  impinge- 
ment of  the  flame  upon  the  boiler  surface  retards  or  arrests  com- 
bustion. Practically  all  of  the  modern  oil  burners  introduce  the 
oil  into  the  furnace  in  finely  divided  particles  for  the  purpose  of 
shortening  the  duration  of  the  burning  and  the  oil  spray  is  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  air  before  it  is  raised  to  the  furnace  tempera- 
ture. Careful  attention  to  the  design  of  the  furnace  is  of  much 
more  importance  than  is  the  selection  of  a  burner. 

Incandescent  brick  work  around  the  flame  is,  of  course,  de- 
sirable, but  in  many  cases  a  satisfactory  compromise  is  effected  by 
using  a  flat  flame  burning  close  to  the  white-hot  floor  through 
which  air  is  steadily  flowing.  Even  in  a  cold  furnace  a  good 
burner  will  maintain  a  suspended  clear  and  smokeless  flame.  The 
path  of  the  flame  should  be  such  that  heat  is  uniformly  dis- 
tributed over  the  boiler  heat-absorbing  surface  without  direct 
flame  impingement.  The  linings  of  furnaces  should  be  kept  tight 
and  there  should  be  no  openings  except  those  necessary  for  the  in- 
troduction of  the  mixture  of  fuel  oil  and  air.  Improper  insulation 
results  in  radiation  of  heat  from  a  furnace.  Each  square  foot 
of  exposed  wall  or  arch  surface  represents  a  loss  of  heat  through 
radiation.  The  refractories  used  should  be  the  best  obtainable, 
of  uniform  thickness,  and  as  mechanically  perfect  as  possible. 
Under  ordinary  firing  the  first  pass  of  the  boiler  should  be  located 
directly  over  the  furnace  in  order  that  the  heating  surface  may 
absorb  the  radiant  heat  from  the  incandescent  fire  brick.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  it  is  not  desirable  to  have  fire  brick  arches  and 

132 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOILER  FURNACES         133 

target  walls  because  they  localize  the  heat  with  a  resultant  burn- 
ing out  of  tubes  or  bagging  of  shell  on  account  of  the  limited 
overload  capacity. 


I 


FIG.  42.     Fuel  Oil  Pump   Set,  Controlled  by  a  Spring-Control   Diaphragm. 
(Courfesy  Fisher  Governor  Company) 

The  velocity  of  the  gases  in  their  passage  through  the  fur- 
nace should  not  be  so  high  that  complete  combustion  of  the  oil 
does  not  take  place.  The  problem  of  obtaining  complete  com- 


134  PUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

bustion  is  comparatively  simple.  Sufficient  oxygen  must  be  sup- 
plied to  burn  the  hydrocarbons  contained  in  the  fuel  oil  and  excess 
air  must  be  avoided. 

The  following  statement  in  the  Report  of  the  U.  S.  Naval 
"Liquid  Fuel''  Board  gives  concisely  the  fundamentals  of  fur- 
nace design :  "A  liquid  fuel  such  as  crude  petroleum  requires  an 
ample  combustion  space,  more  indeed  than  does  almost  any  other 
sort  of  combustible  material.  The  relative  dimensions — length, 
breadth,  and  depth — of  the  combustion  spaces  are  of  minor  im- 
portance. The  primary  requisite  is  volume,  and  that  alone,  pro- 
vided all  parts  of  it  are  traversed  by  the  same  quantity  of  gas 
in  a  given  time ;  in  other  words,  provided  the  gases  are  not  short- 
circuited  through  or  across  some  parts  of  the  space  to  the  neglect 
of  others.  Thus,  if  a  current  of  gas  flows  through  a  cubic  foot 
of  space  at  the  rate  of  1  cubic  foot  per  second,  each  particle 
of  gas  will  spend  one  second  within  the  space,  regardless  of 
whether  the  space  is  long  and  narrow  or  short  and  wide.  In  a 
long  and  narrow  space  there  is  less  chance  of  the  gases  taking 
a  short  cut,  and  herein  lies  the  sole  utility  of  introducing  baffles  in 
the  combustion  space.  Indeed,  there  is  a  strong  objection  to  their 
introduction  arising  from  the  fact  that  the  narrower  the  passage 
the  greater  will  be  the  velocity  of  flow  and  the  greater  the  distance 
to  be  traversed.  Since  the  resistance  that  the  draft  pressure  must 
ovrcome  is  proportional  to  the  square  of  the  velocity  of  flow 
and  to  the  length  of  the  passage,  it  follows,  that  for  a  given 
volume  of  combustion  space  the  draft  resistance  will  be  propor- 
tional to  the  cube  of  its  length.  The  advantages  are,  therefore, 
in  favor  of  the  combustion  space  of  large  cross  section  and  short 
in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the  gases. 

As  to  the  difficulty  arising  from  the  tendency  of  the  gases  to 
follow  the  path  of  least  resistance  and  to  flow,  for  instance,  with 
too  great  velocity  at  the  center  of  the  space  and  too  little  at  the 
sides,  that  can  always  be  checked  by  means  of  retarders  placed 
so  as  to  equalize  the  velocity  over  the  cross  section  of  the  current. 
The  difficulty,  therefore,  reduces  itself  to  the  mere  trouble  of 
finding  out  where  to  place  the  retarders,  and  this  is  obviously  a 
question  to  be  settled  by  experiment.  What  is  true  in  this  matter 
of  the  combustion  space  is  also  largely  true  of  the  tube  space. 
The  process  of  diffusion,  so  important  to  combustion,  continues 
after  the  combustion  is  complete,  and  must  have  a  good  deal  to  do 
with  the  rate  at  which  heat  is  abstracted  from  the  gases  by  the 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOILER  FURNACES 


135 


136  FUEL  OIL  IX  IXDUSTRY 

heating  surfaces.  As  affecting  the  necessary  amount  of  draft 
pressure,  a  tube  space  short  in  the  direction  of  flow  of  the  gases 
and  of  large  cross-sectional  area  is  better  than  one  of  small  area 
and  long  in  the  direction  of  flow ;  but  on  account  of  the  lesser 
velocity  of  flow  through  the  short  space  the  gases  within  it  will 
be  less  thoroughly  mixed  by  eddying,  and  the  importance  of  ar- 
ranging the  heating  surfaces  so  as  to  permeate  all  parts  of  the 
space  will  be  increased." 


FIG.  44.     Application  of  Baffle  Wall. 


The  following  essential  requirements  govern  boiler  and  fur- 
nace design,  according  to  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Minesa:  "(1)  The 
heating  surfaces  must  be  arranged  in  such  a  way  that  the  gas 
passages  are  long  and  of  small  cross  section  so  as  to  give  a  small 
hydraulic  mean  depth,  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  being  defined 
as  "the  quotient  of  the  area  of  the  cross  section  of  the  gas  stream 
divided  by  the  perimeter  formed  by  the  boiler  heating  surface 
touched  by  the<  gases."  An  increase  of  the  ratio  of  the  length 

a.   Efficiency  in  the  Use  of  Oil  Fuel,  Wadsworth,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  Page  15. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  TOILER  FURNACES        137 

of  gas  path  to  the  hydraulic  mean  depth  of  the  cross  section  of 
the  path  increases  the  efficiency  of  the  boiler,  because  the  hot 
molecules  of  gas  will  strike  the  heating  surface  oftener  and 
will  have  to  travel  smaller  distances  to  reach  this  surface.  The 


FIG.  45.     Eliminating  Dead  Spaces  with  Baffles. 

amount  of  heat  given  up  to  this  surface  by  a  given  volume  of 
gases  will  therefore  be  greater,  and  both  boiler  and  furnace  ef- 
ficiency will  be  higher.  This  ratio  can  be  increased,  either  by 
increasing  the  length  of  the  gas  path,  or  by  reducing  the  hydraulic 


FIG.    4fi.      An    Inclined    Baffle. 

mean  depth.  The  length  of  the  gas  path  can  be  increased  by 
either  increasing  the  length  of  the  boiler  or  by  placing  baffles  and 
thus  putting  parts  of  the  heating  surface  in  series  with  one  an- 
other. (2)  The  heating  surface  should  asee"  as  much  of  the  fur- 
nace as  possible  in  order  to  increase  the  amount  of  heat  imparted 


138 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


to  it.  This  effect  should  not  be  so  pronounced  that  the  heat  will 
be  radiated  to  the  heating  surface  too  rapidly,  for  the  furnace 
temperature  would  then  be  reduced  below  that  required  to  support 
combustion.  (3)  The  combustion  space  of  the  furnace  must  be 
so  constructed  that  the  burning  particles  of  fuel  shall  be  com- 
pletely consumed  before  they  can  touch  the  relatively  cold  boiler 
surface ;  also  this  space  should  enlarge  in  the  direction  of  the 


FIG.   47.     An  Oil-Burner  Under  a  Vertical  Tubular 

Boiler. 
(Courtesy   of  John   Foerst   and    Sons.) 

flow  of  the  heated  and  expanding  gases,  as  the  capacity  of  a  fur- 
nace for  burning  oil  is  limited  almost  entirely  by  the  furnace 
volume.  The  furnace  should  be  lined  with  refractory  brick, 
which  when  very  hot  radiate  heat  and  assist  the  combustion  of 
the  fuel." 

Mr.  K.  L.  Martin,  writing  in  Oil  News,a  discusses  furnace 

a     Oil   News,  April   20,   1920,   p.    17. 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOILER  FURNACES         139 

design  for  burning  fuel  oil  as  follows :  "An  authority  on  oil  burn- 
ing recently  stated  that  the  selection  of  a  burner,  while  important, 
was  secondary  to  the  proper  design  of  the  furnace.  Nine-tenths 
of  the  trouble  experienced  in  the  installation  of  oil  burners  could 
be  avoided  if  the  proper  attention  were  paid  to  getting  the  com- 
bustion space  large  enough  and  to  locating  the  walls  opposite  the 
burner  far  enough  away  so  the  flame  does  not  strike  them.  A 
study  of  the  best  stationary  boiler  practice  using  steam  atomizing 
furnaces  would  indicate  that  a  ratio  of  one  cubic  foot  of  furnace 
volume  should  be  provided  for  every  boiler  horsepower  to  be  de- 
veloped. In  other  words,  a  500-horsepower  boiler  which  is  ex- 


FIG.   48.      Oil    Burning  System   for   Scotch   Marine   Boilers. 
(Courtesy    of    Vulcan    Engineering    Co.) 

pected  to  run  at  200  percent  of  rating  should  have  approximately 
1,000  cubic  feet  of  space  below  the  tubes.  Furnaces  have  unques- 
tionably been  operated  with  proportionately  smaller  combustion 
space  but  the  constant  tendency  of  all  furnace  design,  not  only 
for  oil  but  for  powdered  coal,  and  modern  stokers  is  decidedly 
for  larger  combustion  space. 

This  has  resulted  in  higher  boiler  settings,  fourteen  feet  from 
the  floor  to  the  bottom  of  the  front  header  being  common,  and  in 
the  moving  back  of  the  bridge  wall  to  a  point  ten,  eleven,  or  even 
more  feet  from  the  front  wall.  As  installations  are  frequently 


140 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


made  in  boilers  where  the  height  is  fixed  and  usually  too  low, 
the  most  common  way  to  get  the  necessary  furnace  volume  is  to 
move  back  the  bridge  wall.  Until  recently  this  has  made  neces- 
sary the  laying  of  a  horizontal  shelf  of  T-tile  on  the  lower  row 
of  tubes  to  joint  the  old  cross  baffle  with  the  top  of  the  bridge 
wall  in  its  new  position.  This  practice  had  several  objections : 

1.     The  T-tile  must  necessarily  be  small  in  order  to  get  them 
in  place  and  the  resulting  mosaic  is  full  of  open  joints  through 


^^mmn 


FIG.    49.      Application    of    Oil-Burning    System    to    the    Stirling    Watertube 

Boiler. 
(Courtesy     of     Hammel     Oil     Burner     Company.) 

which  a  quantity  of  hot  gases  short  circuit  directly  from  the  fur- 
nace chamber  to  the  third  pass  and  escape  up  the  stack. 

2.  Those  gases  which  do  not  escape  travel  along  underneath 
the  baffle  until  they  meet  the  elbow  formed  by  the  horizontal  and 
vertical  baffles.     The  tubes  at  this  point  are  already  exposed  to 
the  radiant  heat  of  the  flame  and  to  the  gases  rising  directly  from 
the  front  of  the  furnace,  and  the  resulting  concentration  of  the 
heat  is  often  too  much  for  the  tubes  and  failures  are  frequent. 

3.  The  horizontal  baffle  forms  a  shelf  on  which  the  soot  is 
deposited  and  while  this  deposit  is  not  as  troublesome  as  in  coal 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOILER  FURNACES        141 

burning  boilers,  it  still  has  to  be  reckoned  with.  These  troubles 
have  been  remedied  by  the  design  of  a  baffle  wall  so  constructed 
that,  while  absolutely  gas  tight,  it  can  be  built  at  any  desired  in- 
clination and  the  horizontal  baffle  entirely  eliminated.  One  of  the 
first  applications  is  shown  in  fig.  44.  This  boiler  was  originally 
coal  burning  and  was  converted  to  oil  burning  in  a  manner  all  too 
frequent — by  taking  out  the  grates,  laying  a  checker  work  and 
inserting  a  couple  of  burners  through  the  front  wall.  At  the 
end  of  six  months  they  had  replaced  over  a  hundred  tubes,  the 


FIG.    50.      Oil   Burning   System   Applied   to    Return-Tubular   Boiler. 
(Courtesy   of   Staples  and   Pfeiffer.) 

remainder  were  bent  so  .that  the  tubes  in  some  rows  were  down 
on  the  tube  in  the  next,  the  furnace  linings  had  been  replaced 
several  times  and  complaints  from  the  authorities  as  to  the  smoke 
were  insistent.  Neither  the  ratings  nor  the  economies  anticipated 
had  been  obtained.  Realizing  the  opportunity  for  better  design 
made  possible  by  the  new  type  of  baffle  wall,  the  bridge  wall  was 
moved  back  to  a  point  ten  feet  from  the  front  wall  so  that  the 
flame  no  longer  played  upon  it.  The  horizontal  shelf  and  right 
angle  baffle  was  replaced  by  a  long  inclined  baffle  wall  starting 
from  the  top  of  the  wall  and  making  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 


142  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

tubes.     At  the  same  time  the  floor  of  the  furnace  was  lowered 
42  inches. 

This  furnace  has  now  been  in  continuous  service  for  nearly 
three  years  and  the  original  linings  are  in  the  furnace.  No  tubes 
have  been  renewed  except  about  three  months  ago.  A  few  of  the 
worst  of  the  bent  ones  left  in  when  the  change  was  made,  with 
the  expectation  they  would  soon  burn  out,  were  replaced.  High 
ratings  and  satisfactory  economy  have  been  realized.  No  repairs 
to  the  baffles  have  been  necessary.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  wide 


FIG.    51.        A   Babcock   and   WMcox   Oil   Furnace,   Talented. 

open  throat  of  the  first  pass  gives  every  opportunity  for  the 
radiant  heat  from  the  flame  and  the  reflected  heat  from  the  fur- 
nace wa'lls  and  floor  to  strike  the  tubes.  The  wide  opening  also 
means  a  low  velocity  for  the  gases  and  abundant  time  for  their 
heat  to  be  transmitted  through  the  steel  walls  of  the  tubes  to  the 
water  inside. 

The  gases  are  cooled  as  they  pass  by  the  tubes  and  naturally 
shrink  in  volume  and  tend  to  draw  away  from  the  front  header, 


ARRANGEMENT  OF  BOILER  FURNACES        143 

leaving  a  dead  space  at  its  top.  The  inclined  wall  contracts  the 
space  as  the  gases  cool,  so  that  they  need  every  cubic  inch  of  space 
to  get  through  and  every  square  inch  of  heating  surface  is  flooded 
with  hot  gas.  This  action  is  continued  through  the  second  and 
third  passes.  The  result  is  shown  in  fig.  45. 

In  another  installation  a  low  setting  had  been  used  in  connec- 
tion with  coal  fires.  Before  the  existence  of  the  new  baffle  was 
known,  the  bridge  wall  was  moved  back,  a  horizontal  shelf  built 
and  a  back  shot  burner  installed.  At  the  end  of  54  days  they 
had  been  unable  at  any  time  to  develop  more  than  rating  for  the 
boiler,  and  they  had  lost  12  tubes.  The  inclined  baffle  (fig.  46) 
was  installed  in  a  similar  boiler  alongside  the  first  as  an  experi- 
ment and  at  the  end  of  57  days  no  tubes  had  been  replaced  and 
they  had  carried  a  load  averaging  200%  of  rating.  As  this  meant 
a  development  of  100,000  more  horsepower  per  year  per  boiler, 
the  first  boiler  was  immediately  rebaffled  and  has  since  given 
equally  good  results." 

The  application  of  fuel  oil  burners  to  any  type  of  furnace  is 
easily  performed.  Fig.  47  shows  an  oil  burner  under  a  vertical 
tubular  boiler.  Fig.  48  shows  an  oil-burning  system  for  Scotch 
Marine  boilers.  Fig.  49  shows  an  oil-burning  system  applied  to 
the  Stirling  water-tube  boiler  and  fig.  50  to  a  return-tubular  boiler. 
Fig.  51  shows  a  Babcock  and  Wilcox  Oil  Furnace,  patented. 

CHIMNEY    DESIGN 

The  same  procedure  is  gone  through  in  the  design  for  stacks 
for  oil  fuel  firing  as  for  coal  burning.  The  required  draft  in  the 
furnace  at  maximum  overload  in  each  case  is  obtained  by  the 
necessary  height  and  the  maximum  volume  of  gases  generated 
determines  the  proportion  of  the  area  of  the  stack.  When  coal  is 
burned  there  is  seldom  any  danger  of  too  much  draft,  but  the 
economy  of  oil-fired  furnaces  is  greatly  affected  by  excessive 
draft  and  for  this  reason  the  various  draft  losses  through  the 
boiler  and  breaching  must  be  estimated  very  carefully.  A  bed  of 
coal  on  the  grate  occasions  loss  of  draft,  but  with  oil  fuel  this 
loss  is  negligible  and  in  addition  on  account  of  the  smaller  volume 
of  gases  discharged  per  boiler  horsepower  hour,  the  pressure  loss 
through  the  boiler  will  be  less  than  with  coal.  To  a  more  or  less 
degree  the  action  of  the  burner  itself  acts  as  a  forced  draft.  For 
this  reason  both  the  height  and  area  of  a  stack  for  any  given 


144 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


capacity  of  boiler  will  be  less  for  oil  firing  than  for  coal  firing. 
Mr.  C.  R.  Weymoutha  has  prepared  the  most  authoritative  table 
for  proportioning  stacks  for  oil  fuel.  The  data  prepared  by  Mr. 
Weymouth  are  given  in  Table  14. 

TABLE  14.— STACK  SIZES  FOR  OIL  FUEL 


Stack  Diameter, 

Height  in  Feet  Above  Boiler-Room  Floor 

80 

90 

100 

120 

140 

160 

33 

161 

206 

233 

270 

306 

315 

36 

208 

253 

295 

331 

363 

387 

39 

251 

303 

343 

399 

488 

467 

42 

295 

359 

403 

474 

521 

557 

48 

399 

486 

551 

645 

713 

760 

54 

519 

634 

720 

847 

933 

1000 

60 

657 

800 

913 

1073 

1193 

1280 

66 

813 

993 

1133 

1333 

1480 

1593 

72 

980 

1206 

1373 

1620 

1807 

1940 

84 

1373 

1587 

1933 

2293 

2560 

2767 

96 

1833 

2260 

2587 

3087 

3453 

3740 

108 

2367 

2920 

3347 

4000 

4483 

4867 

120 

3060 

3660 

4207 

5040 

5660 

6160 

Figures  represent  nominal  rated  horsepower;  sizes  as  given  are  good  for  50  per  cent 
overloads.  Based  on  centrally  located  stacks,  short  direct  flues  and  ordinary  operating 
efficiencies. 


aTrans.  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  34. 


CHAPTER   VIII 
TYPES  OF  FUEL  OIL  BURNERS 

The  first  recorded  attempt  to  use  oil  as  a  fuel  was  in  1861, 
when  Werner,  a  mechanic  employed  in  a  refinery  in  Russia, 
burned  the  residuum  obtained  from  the  refinery  in  an  open  fur- 
nace. The  desirability  of  a  liquid  fuel  was  obvious  and  subse- 
quent to  Werner's  attempt,  each  year  produced  its  quota  of 
designs  for  oil  burners  until  at  the  present  time  there  are  on  file 
in  the  United  States,  British  and  Continental  patent  offices  several 
thousand  designs  of  oil  fuel  burners.  Very  few  of  these  patents 
were  designed  in  accordance  with  the  fundamental  principles 
which  should  underlie  such  devices.  The  main  function  of  a 
burner  is  to  atomize  the  oil  thoroughly  so  that  it  is  broken  up 
into  very  small  particles  forming  a  mist  in  which  each  particle 
of  oil  is  surrounded  with  an  envelope  of  air  ready  for  immediate 
and  complete  combustion.  The  thousands  of  designs  of  fuel  oil 
burners  which  differ  from  each,  other  in  minor  respects  may  be 
divided  into  three  major  classifications: 

(1)  Vapor  burners. 

(2)  Mechanical  burners. 

(3)  Spray  burners. 

VAPOR    BURNERS 

The  report  of  the  U.  S.  N.  "Liquid  Fuel  Board"  states  that 
the  impossibility  of  successfully  operating  burners  designed  on  the 
principle  of  superheating  the  oil  to  a  point  bordering  on  gasifica- 
tion, has  been  both  theoretically  and  practically  demonstrated. 
The  conclusions  in  regard  to  such  burners  expressed  by  Com- 
modore Isherwood  many  years  ago  holds  true  now  as  then.  The 
liquid  oil  has,  in  all  cases,  to  be  transformed  into  oil  gas  before 
it  can  be  burned.  This  transformation  can  be  made  by  the  direct 
application  externally  of  heat  to  the  liquid,  but  the  temperature 
of  the  oil  on  the  vaporizing  surface  is  higher  than  the  temperature 
required  to  decompose  it,  the  result  being  deposition  of  solid 
carbon  in  the  form  of  coke,  which  soon  fills  the  vaporizing  vessels 
and  renders  them  useless.  This  coke  is  frequently  so  hard  that 
cold  chisels  can  scarcely  detach  it,  and  if  thrown  into  a  fire  even 

145 


146  FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 

in  small  fragments  it  burns  with  excessive  slowness,  like  graphite. 
Whenever  the  vaporizing  vessel  is  subjected  to  a  high  tempera- 
ture, like  that  of  a  boiler  furnace,  the  decomposition  of  the  oil  and 
deposition  of  coke  go  rapidly  on,  so  that  in  the  course  of  a  few 
hours  any  vessel  of  practicable  size  is  filled  by  it.  All  apparatus 
exposed  to  anything  like  furnace  or  flame  temperature  will  inevita- 
bly fail  from  these  causes  in  the  future,  as  they  have  in  the  past. 

MECHANICAL    BURNERS 

Among  the  thousands  of  oil  burners  which  have  been  de- 
signed there  are  many  which  affect  vaporization  by  entirely 
mechanical  means.  Since  the  early  days  of  oil  burning,  various 
plans  have  been  proposed  to  effect  vaporization  by  entirely  me- 
chanical means.  Early  inventions  contemplated  the  use  of  oil 
running  over  surfaces  exposed  to  the  action  of  flames  and  the 
burning  taking  place  directly  on  the  exposed  surface  of  the  oil. 


FIG.    52.      A    Mechanical    Oil    Burner. 

All  such  plans  proved  decidedly  inefficient  owing  to  the  fact  that 
the  air  supply  could  never  be  brought  to  the  burning  surfaces  of 
oil  in  quantities  sufficient  to  effect  complete  combustion.  Conse- 
quently all  mechanical  burners  operating  on  that  plan  have  been 
long  since  abandoned.  The  next  field  of  invention  that  gave 
indication  of  success  was  to  design  burners  in  which  the  oil  would 
be  sprayed  positively  by  mechanical  action.  Mechanical  action 
can  be  resorted  to,  for  the  purpose  of  spraying  oil  by  two  general 
methods :  First,  to  force  oil  outward  under  considerable  pressure 
from  a  properly  formed  orifice,  by  the  action  of  a  special  pump ; 
second,  by  whirling  or  flinging  the  oil  outward  from  a  rapidly 
revolving  mass  or  burner  head.  Figure  52  shows  a  mechanical 
burner  which  can  be  regulated  very  closely  by  means  of  the  ad- 
justing rod.  With  all  mechanical  burners  the  tips  are  required  to 
be  very  small  in  the  diameter  of  orifice,  usually  not  over  •£%  of  an 
inch.  The  objection  to  burners  of  this  type,  as  compared  with 


TYPES  OP  FUEL  OIL  BURNERS  147 

the  stcam-atomization  type,  is  the  equipment  required.  Also, 
the  general  conical  shape  of  the  flame  and  the  tendency  toward 
blast  action  frequently  requires  change  in  the  furnace  to  insure 
successful  use.  Professor  Jiles  W.  Haney  of  the  Department 
of  Mechanical  Engineering,  University  of  Nebraska,  writing  in 
Oil  Xews,a  has  the  following  to  say  concerning  mechanical  burn- 
ers :  "A  mechanical  burner  atomizes  the  oil  by  giving  it  a  cen- 
trifugal throw  through  small  slots  tangentially  placed  in  the 
burner.  The  air  is  fed  in  around  the  burner  so  that  it  assists  in 
breaking  up  the  oil.  The  oil,  heated  almost  to  its  flash  point,  is 
pumped  to  the  burner  under  pressure  and  as  it  passes  a  central 
spindle,  spirally  grooved,  a  rotary  motion  is  given  to  the  oil  caus- 
ing it  to  fly  into  a  spray  by  centrifugal  force  on  issuing  from  the 
nozzle.  The  particles  of  oil  are  burned  when  they  come  in  con- 
tact with  the  necessary  air  to  effect  combustion.  This  type  of 
burner  has  the  prime  advantage  of  returning  the  steam  used  by 
the  pumps  and  healers  as  feed  water  to  the  boilers.  The  steam 
used  for  operating  it  is  much  less  than  that  for  other  burners, 
ranging  from  Y\  percent  to  1  percent  of  the  total  steam  generated. 
These  considerations  have  made  its  use  in  marine  work  quite 
general,  and  in  stationary  plants  where  feed  water  is  an  important 
item.  The  ease  of  control  is  another  important  advantage  of  the 
mechanical  burner.  For  a  given  boiler  capacity  a  greater  number 
of  these  burners  are  installed  than  in  the  case  of  steam  atomizing 
burners ;  the  number  of  burners  in  operation  varying  as  the  load 
on  the  boiler.  This  scheme  can  be  worked  very  satisfactorily 
since  each  burner  has  its  individual  air  supply,  which  also  can  be 
shut  off  with  the  burner.  This  cannot  be  done  when  the  main 
air  supply  comes  through  a  checkerwork  at  the  bottom  of  the 
furnace.  Another  control  method  is  that  of  changing  the  pressure 
of  the  oil  supplies  to  the  burner.  A  good  burner  will  atomize 
moderately  heavy  oil  with  an  oil  pressure  varying  from  30  to  200 
pounds  per  square  inch ;  then  since  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  oil  dis- 
charged through  a  given  orifice  is  proportional  to  the  pressure  on 
the  oil  at  the  orifice,  a  low  rate  of  flow  will  occur  with  a  low 
pressure  and  a  high  rate  of  flow  will  result  with  a  high  pressure. 
The  pumping  equipment  can  be  connected  up  so  that  it  will  auto- 
matically control  the  rate  of  flow  of  the  oil  to  the  burners  as  the 
load  varies." 


a.      Oil    News,    February    20,    1920,    page    16. 


148 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


SPRAY  BURNERS 

In  spray  burners  the  oil  is  atomized  by  a  blast  of  steam  or 
compressed  air.  The  most  efficient  burner  for  any  purpose  is  the 
simplest  possible  piece  of  mechanism  using  the  least  possible 
amount  of  steam  or  air  for  atomizing  purposes.  An  analysis  of 
the  various  types  of  spray  burners  made  by  the  U.  S.  N.  "Liquid 
Fuel  Board"  shows  that  five  general  classes  will  cover  practically 


i 


Drooling 
burner. 


II 


Atomizer 
burner. 


Ill 


Chamber 
burner. 


Injector 
burner. 


[T    Projector 
'        burner. 


FIG.  53.     Classes  of  Spray  Burners. 

all  the  main  features  of  construction.     These  five  classes  of  oil 
burners  may  be  thus  grouped : 

1.  Drooling  burner. 

2.  Atomizer  burner. 

3.  Chamber  burner. 

4.  Injector  burner. 

5.  Projector  burner. 

These  five  classes  are  shown  by  fig.  53,  in  which  each  burner 
is  pared  down  to  its  very  simplest  elements  of  construction,  leav- 


TYPES  OF  FUEL  OIL  BURNERS  149 

ing  out  all  unnecessary  features  of  manufacture  or  detail  which 
might  be  regarded  as  merely  accessory. 

1.  Drooling  burner. — The  name   selected   for  this  burner, 
while  perhaps  unusual,  best  expresses  its  function  as  seen  from 
the  diagram;  the  oil  simply  oozes  out,  or  properly  "drools"  out, 
at  the  orifice  over  and  on  to  the  steam  jet.    In  this  case  the  drool- 
ing oil  is  simply  carried  away  on  a  jet  of  flaring  steam.     The 
action  is  supposed  to  be  as  follows :    As  the  steam  issues  forth  it 
expands  within  the  layer  or  film  of  oil  which  is  being  carried  into 
the  air  by  the  fire  box.     It  may  be  thought  that  this  rather  rough 
method  of   effecting  vaporization  would  hardly  be  possible  or 
satisfactory;  yet  as  large  numbers  of  these  burners  have  been 
and  are  in  actual  use,  they  can  not  be  regarded  as  crude  or  unsat- 
isfactory. 

2.  The  Atomizer  burner. — In  this  burner  the  oil  is  brought 
through  an  orifice  from  which  it  is  swept  off  by  a  brush  of  steam 
or  air.     It  is,  in  short,  a  principle  made  use  of  in  an  ordinary 
cologne  sprayer.     This  form  of  spraying  or  atomizing  is  a  very 
old  invention,  and  its  capabilities  for  spraying  into  a  fine  mist 
have  long  been  appreciated. 

3.  Chamber  burner. — In  this  burner  the  oil  and  steam  are 
more  or  less  mingled  within  the  body  of  the  burner  and  pass  out 
from  the  tip  or  nozzle  as  a  mixture,  and  then,  owing  to  the  ex- 
pansion  of   the   steam,   the   oil   is    rapidly   broken   into   minute 
particles.     Burners  of  this  type  are  simple  in  construction  and 
have  been  carried  through  a  large  range  of  design. 

4.  Injector   burner. — Burners   of   this  type   are  analogous 
to  the  injector  often  used  for  boiler  feeding  and  similar  purposes. 
Here  the  steam  and  oil  rising,  each  through  its  own  passage, 
mingle  within   cone-shaped  passages,  and  as   a  mixture   passes 
through  a  contracted  nozzle,  and  then  outward  through  a  reversed 
flaring  cone.     Burners  designed  on  these  lines  have  the  principle 
common  to  injectors  in  general,  that  they  can  draw  or  suck  the 
oil  to  them  and  force  the  mixture  of  steam  and  oil  outward  at 
considerable  velocity.     Burners  of  this  type  have  been  in  use 
for  forty  years  or  more  on  the  railroads  of  Russia  and  have  be- 
come with  that  nation  what  might  be  regarded  as  a  standard  type. 

5.  Projector  burners. — In  burners  of  this  type  the  oil  is 
pumped  to  the  oil  orifice  and  from  there  is  caught  by  a  passing 
gust  of  steam  and  blown  off.    This  might  be  regarded  as  a  sub- 


50 


FUEL  OIL  IN  IXDUS'/'RY 


classification  of  Xo.  2,  the  atomizer  burner,  except  for  the  fact 
that  the  brush  of  steam  is  located  some  distance  from  the  oil 
orifice,  and  this  sweeping  brush  of  steam,  as  usually  constructed, 


Basic  section  of  drooling  burner. 


Straight  shot  burners* 


Long  slot  burner. 


Fan-tailed  burners. 


Rose  burners. 


FIG.    54.      Possible    Modifications    of    the    Drooler    Burner. 

is  arranged  to  entrain  a  certain  amount  of  air  further  to  aid  in 
spraying  and  in  combustion. 

By  changing  the  pressure  on  the  atomizing  medium  or  by 
some  slight  variation  of  construction  a  long  or  short  flame  of 
special  advantage  for  some  particular  purpose,  may  be  produced 


TYPES    OF    OIL    FUEL    BURNERS  151 

in  the  first  four  of  the  types  described  above.  As  an  example, 
the  possible  modifications  of  the  drooling  burner  are  shown  in 
fig.  54.  In  this  illustration  the  first  sketch  shows  the  basic  form 
of  the  drooling  burner.  This  subdivides  into  four  special  classes 
designated  as  A,  B,  C,  and  D.  In  form  A  is  shown  the  drooling 
burner  made  in  its  simplest  possible  form,  the  upper  view  show- 
ing simply  two  drilled  holes,  the  larger  for  oil  and  the  smaller 
for  steam,  while  the  lower  view  shows  two  pipes  in  a  double 
T-elbow,  the  larger  pipe  being  for  oil  and  the  smaller  for  steam. 
Burners  have  often  been  made  in  this  exceedingly  elementary 
form,  and  will  give  results  without  any  further  recourse  to  mech- 
anism. For  convenience,  this  subdivision  A  is  termed  as 
"straight  shot  burners,"  due  to  the  fact  that  the  flame  formed 
will  have  considerable  length.  In  form  B  the  basic  section  of 
the  drooling  burner  is  developed  into  a  class  which  gives  two  long 
slots.  In  this  form  a  large  number  of  burners  have  been  con- 
structed, and  in  another  part  of  this  report  results  of  tests  are 
given  on  the  Santa  Fe  burner,  which  has  been  largely  used  on  a 
railroad  of  that  name.  In  this  simple  form  of  a  box-shaped  cast- 
ing these  burners  have  gained  a  wide  use,  especially  for  railroad 
work.  The  construction  is  of  course  crude,  but  the  results  from 
a  practical  standpoint  have  been  quite  satisfactory,  due  to  the  fact 
that  there  are  no  complicated  parts,  and  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  choke  up  any  of  the  openings  even  with  quite  a  dirty  oil. 
Where  burners  are  required  to  use  a  very  heavy  oil  or  residuum, 
or  even  a  tar,  these  burners  will  always  operate.  This  form  B, 
which,  for  convenience,  has  been  termed  the  long-slot  burner,  can 
be  developed  into  the  additional  form  C,  or  a  fan-tailed  burner. 
In  form  C  there  are  two  burners  which  can  be  devised.  The  first 
form,  in  which  the  fan-tailed  effect  spreads  through  but  a  small 
arc  of  a  circle,  and  the  second  form,  in  which  the  fan-tailed  effect 
is  extended  so  as  to  cover  the  arc  of  the  entire  circle.  The  first 
form  will  cover  a  large  amount  of  surface  in  a  wide  or  square 
firebox,  while  with  the  second  form  the  burner  can  be  placed 
in  the  center  of  a  grate  and  the  flame  will  extend  outward  in  the 
form  of  a  continuous  sheet  and  cover  the  entire  firebox  or  grate 
area,  such  uses  being  desirable,  for  example,  in  the  fire  box  of 
vertical  boilers,  such  as  fire  engines,  etc.  The  last  form  or 
modification,  form  D,  can  be  developed  from  the  basic  section  of 
this  drooling  burner  by  conceiving  that  the  section  is  revolved 
around  an  axis  parallel  with  the  burner  axis.  By  revolving  the 


152  FUEL  OIL  IX  IXDUSTRY 

section  around  an  axis  on  the  steam  side  there  will  be  derived  a 
burner  of  the  style  shown  in  the  upper  part  of  the  pair  of  form 
D,  or  by  revolving  the  basic  section  around  an  axis  near  the 
oil  side  we  get  a  form  of  burner  shown  as  the  lower  one.  Either 
of  these  two  burners,  while  apparently  very  different  in  form 
from  the  basic  section,  yet  are  nothing  more  or  less  than  a  devel- 
opment of  the  original  type.  Burners  of  this  style  should  prob- 
ably only  be  used  where  very  heavy  consumption  of  oil  is  required. 
In  heavy  metallurgical  operations,  brick  kilns,  and  where  a  large 
volume  of  flame  is  desired  such  burners  have  a  wide  field  of 
usefulness. 

Practically  all  of  the  basic  types  can  be  further  modified  by 
special  design  of  their  tips  or  orifice,  thus  leading  to  still  greater 
variety  and  often  to  greater  improvement  in  their  spraying  qual- 
ities. These  modifications  of  tips  can  be  reduced  to  a  series  of 
classes  independent  of  the  other  possible  mechanical  arrangements 
of  the  burners.  Fig.  55  shows  types  of  burner  tips.  Form  1 : 
The  design  of  the  tip  is  in  itself  a  matter  of  much  moment,  as 
the  configuration  of  the  tip  edges  has  a  very  important  physical 
effect  on  the  formation  of  the  spray,  and  whether  the  material 
which  it  is  intended  to  spray  is  forced  through  by  steam,  com- 
pressed air,  or  even  by  the  effect  of  its  own  pressure  supplied  by 
a  pump,  the  edge  over  which  the  spray  last  passes  has  a  deter- 
mining effect  on  the  state  of  subdivision  of  the  spray.  In  form  1 
is  represented  an  ordinary  nozzle  with  a  sharpened  edge  at  the 
point  of  exit.  If  a  proper  angle  is  selected  for  this  edge,  and  the 
edge  itself  is  well  sharpened,  the  outgoing  stream  instead  of  pass- 
ing out  in  a  straight  line,  as  from  a  hose  nozzle,  is  caused  to 
diverge,  and  if  divergence  ensues,  of  course  there  follows  an 
expansion  in  the  volume  of  the  outgoing  liquid  which  causes  a 
condition  of  more  or  less  subdivision  of  the  particles  of  the  fluid. 
In  form  2  is  shown  a  design  of  orifice  in  which  this  effect  is 
heightened  by  introducing  a  cone  in  the  center  of  the  conical 
orifice.  The  physical  reason  why  this  increased  divergence  is 
secured  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  cone  takes  the  place  of  any 
streams  of  oil  which  in  the  first  case  had  the  tendency  to  travel 
in  the  straight  lines  of  the  solid  core  of  fluid.  All  the  lines  of 
fluid  traveling  down  the  cone  surface  meet  in  collision  at  the  edge 
and  tip  of  the  cone  and  rapidly  expand  owing  to  the  pressure 
which  was  behind  them.  In  form  3  there  is  again  indicated  the 
same  type  of  sharpened  cone-shaped  orifice,  but  outside  of  this  is 


TYPES    OF    OIL    FUEL    BURNERS 


153 


placed  a  diverging  cone  upon  which  the  outgoing  spray  strikes  and 
receives  a  greater  amount  of  divergence  than  the  orifice  edges 
would  alone  have  produced.  This  diverging  cone  is  usually 
placed  with  its  stem  extending  within  the  orifice,  although  at  the 
right  of  the  diagram  is  shown  a  case  where  the  diverging  cone  is 
supported  from  the  outside.  The  amount  of  divergence  effected 

i. 

Spraying 
from  a  sharp 
edge. 


V. 

Spraying 
by  centrifu- 
gal action 
by  tangen- 
tial inward 
delivery. 

VI. 

Sprayirtg 
by  ball  noz- 
zle. 


VII. 

Spraying 
by-  pepper- 
box nozzle 


FIG.    55.      Types   of   Burner   Tips. 


by  this  cone  can  be  controlled  to  any  extent  by  the  position  or 
shape  of  the  diverging  surface  of  the  cone.  In  form  4  there  is 
shown  an  orifice  similar  to  form  1,  but  increased  divergence  of 
the  cone  of  spray  is  obtained  by  circulating  the  fluid  in  a  rotary 
manner  before  issuing  from  the  sharpened  orifice,  the  physical 
result  of  which  is  that  as  soon  as  the  fluid  leaves  the  orifice  the 
effect  of  centrifugal  action  is  manifested  to  fling  the  oil  tangent- 


154  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

ially  outward  to  some  distance.  In  the  diagram,  as  shown,  this 
centrifugal  effect  is  obtained  by  passing  the  fluid  through  spiral 
passages.  Form  5  represents  the  original  style  of  orifice,  but  the 
casing  is  so  shaped  as  to  obtain  the  rotational  effect  of  the  pre- 
vious tip  by  admitting  the  fluid  tangentially  to  the  interior  of  the 
chamber.  The  effect  on  the  resulting  cone  or  spray  is  the  same 
as  in  the  previous  example.  Form  6 :  The  type  of  nozzle  is 
changed  by  inserting  a  ball  in  the  outgoing  current  of  spray,  thus 
mechanically  breaking  up  the  action  by  requiring  the  spray  to 
strike  the  ball,  this  being  nothing  more  or  less  than  the  old 
familiar  type  of  the  dancing  ball,  long  made  familiar  in  water 
nozzles  and  pneumatic  nozzles  as  a  curiosity.  Its  effectiveness  as 
a  spraying  agent  is  probably  no  greater  or  as  great  as  a  well- 
designed  and  proportioned  orifice  of  form  3.  Form  7  represents 
a  class  widely  different  from  any  of  the  preceding,  which  for  lack 
of  any  other  properly  designative  term  might  be  called  the 
"pepper-box  nozzle."  Its  effectiveness  for  a  certain  class  of  burn- 
ers may  be  made  very  great,  but  it  always  suffers  under  the  great 
disadvantage  of  a  multitude  of  small  holes,  which  are  exceedingly 
liable  to  become  choked  up  by  foreign  matter  or  by  the  hydrocar- 
bons formed  at  the  tip  of  a  burner  while  in  action. 

It  is  understood,  of  course,  that  in  the  description  of  types  of 
burners  just  given  either  steam  or  air  may  be  used  as  the  atom- 
izing agent.  Steam  is  generally  employed  for  stationary  boilers 
and  locomotives.  When  steam  is  used  as  the  atomizing  agent  no 
auxiliary  apparatus  such  as  air  compressors  or  oil  pumps  are  re- 
quired. Compressed  air  is  most  valuable  in  the  case  of  a  battery 
of  boilers  where  high  efficiency  is  essential. 

Discussing  the  subject  of  atomization,  W.  N.  Best  says  :a 
"Compressed  air  or  steam  is  preferable  to  low  pressure  air  be- 
cause it  requires  power  to  thoroughly  atomize  liquid  fuel.  With 
low  pressure  or  volume  air,  you  are  limited  to  the  use  of  light  oils, 
whereas  with  compressed  air  or  steam  as  atomizer,  you  can  use 
any  gravity  of  crude  oil,  fuel  oil,  kerosene  or  tar  which  will  flow 
through  a  ^-inch  pipe.  For  stationary  boilers,  steam  at  boiler 
pressure  is  ordinarily  used  to  atomize  the  fuel.  In  furnaces  the 
most  economical  method  of  operation  is  the  use  of  a  small  quan- 
tity of  compressed  air  or  dry  steam  through  the  burner  to  atomize 
the  fuel,  while  the  balance  of  the  air  necessary  for  perfect  com- 


a.     Science   of   Burning   Liquid    Fuel,    Best. 


TYPES    OF    OIL    FUEL   BURNERS  155 

bustion  is  supplied  independently  through  a  volume  air  nozzle 
at  from  3  to  5  oz.  pressure.  Every  particle  of  moisture  which 
enters  a  furnace  must  be  counteracted  by  the  fuel  and  it  is  there- 
fore essential,  if  steam  is  used  as  atomizer,  that  it  be  as  dry  as 
possible.  It  is  folly  to  attempt  to  use  steam  as  atomizer  on  a  small 
furnace,  especially  if  the  equipment  is  located  some  distance  from 
the  boiler  room,  for  oil  and  hot  water  do  not  mix  advantageously. 
Numerous  tests  have  proven  that  with  steam  at  80  Ibs.  pressure 
and  air  at  80  Ibs.  pressure,  by  using  air  there  is  a  saving  of  12 
percent  in  fuel  over  steam,  but  of  this  12  percent  it  costs  8  percent 
to  compress  the  air  (this  includes  interest  on  money  invested  in 
the  necessary  apparatus  to  compress  the  air,  repairs,  etc.),  so 
there  is  therefore  a  total  net  saving  of  4  percent  in  favor  of  com- 
pressed air." 

Spray  burner  systems  are  classed  as  "high  pressure"  when 
the  oil  and  steam  (or  air)  are  supplied  to  the  burners  under  a 
pressure  of  over  2  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.  and  as  "low  pressure"  when  the 
pressure  is  less  than  2  Ibs. 

Mr.  S.  D.  Rickard,  writing  in  Oil  News,a  says  that  the  most 
essential  points  in  an  oil-burning  system  are:  "1.  That  it  supply 
oil  in  sufficient  volume  to  the  burner  in  a  clean  and  properly 
heated  condition,  and  under  a  constant  and  automatically  regu- 
lated pressure,  free  from  pulsations. 

2.  That  it  supply  air  in  sufficient  volume  to  the  burners 
(when  of  that  type)  in  a  clean  and  fresh  condition,  and  under  a 
constant  and  automatically   regulated  pressure,   free   from  pul- 
sations. 

3.  That  it  supply  steam  to  the  burners  (when  of  that  type) 
in  a  dry,  hot  state,  and  under  sufficient  pressure. 

4.  That  the  air  and  oil  supply  be  connected,  or  co-ordinated, 
in  some  way  so  that  should  the  air  supply  fail,  the  oil  supply  will 
be  instantly  cut  off. 

The  burning  of  oil  is  in  reality  the  continuous  feeding  of 
two  ingredients  (oil  and  air)  in  proper  proportion  into  the  com- 
bustion chamber  in  such  a  manner  that  a  chemical  mixture  will 
be  secured  and  good  combustion  will  be  the  result.  It  will  be  ap- 
preciated that  whenever  the  oil  or  air  pressures  are  not  constant, 
or  pulsate,  it  is  impossible  to  secure  good  combustion.  In  short, 
whenever  the  oil  or  air  supply  pulsates,  it  is  safe  to  say  that  just 

a.   Oil   News.   May   5,    1920,  p.   18. 


156  FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 

50  percent  of  the  time  good  combustion  is  not  obtained.  The 
pressures  of  oil  and  air  must  also  be  automatically  regulated ;  or 
otherwise,  whenever  a  burner  is  started  up  or  shut  down  it  will 
be  necessary  to  adjust  all  of  the  other  burners  in  the  system.  It 
will  also  be  appreciated  that  when  wet  steam  is  fed  to  a  burner 
an  excess  of  oil  must  be  burned  to  overcome  the  cooling  effect 
of  this  water  and  convert  it  into  steam.'' 


CHAPTER   IX 
FUEL  OIL  IN  STEAM  NAVIGATION 

Dr.  George  Otis  Smith,  Director  of  the  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey, in  an  address  before  the  American  Iron  and  Steel  Institute, 
May,  1920,  states  that  the  requirements  of  the  American  Navy 
and  the  new  Merchant  Marine  present  a  priority  demand  on  fuel 
oil.  Dr.  Smith  said :  "Admiral  Griffin,  the  chief  of  the  Bureau 
of  Steam  Engineering  of  the  United  States  Navy,  informs  me 
that  the  oil-burning  vessels  ready  for  service  aggregate  more 
than  6,000,000  horsepower  and  that  other  vessels  under  construc- 
tion will  bring  this  total  up  to  nearly  9,000,000  horsepower.  The 
navy  now  needs  8  million  barrels  of  fuel  oil  a  year,  yet  this  figure 
is  small  compared  with  the  requirements  of  the  Shipping  Board, 
which  are  stated  by  Mr.  Paul  Foley,  its  Director  of  Operations,  as 
40  million  barrels  for  1920  and  60  million  for  1921.  If  the 
American  flag  is  to  fly  on  the  seven  seas  the  motive  power  to 
carry  it  must  be  assured,  and  here  is  one  demand  for  fuel  oil 
which  alone  equals  the  present  output  of  our  refineries  for  about 
four  months.  Surely  no  American  with  vision  wishes  to  con- 
template even  the  possibility  of  a  shortage  of  fuel  oil  that  would 
endanger  the  immediate  availability  of  these  battleships,  cruisers, 
and  destroyers  or  interfere  with  the  successful  operation  of  the 
passenger  and  freight  steamers  in  the  construction  of  which  our 
Nation  has  invested  so  many  nrllion." 

All  of  the  advantages  inherent  in  oil  burning  on  shore  are 
applicable  to  its  use  in  steam  navigation.  On  an  equivalent  bunker 
weight  the  higher  calorific  value  of  fuel  oil  as  compared  to  coal 
increases  the  ship  radius  of  afction  by  50  percent.  A  ton  of  coal 
occupies  43  cubic  feet,  while  a  ton  of  oil  occupies  36  cubic  feet, 
and,  consequently,  with  equivalent  bunker  space  the  ship's  radius 
of  action  is  increased  80  percent  and  this  advantage  can  be 
greatly  increased  by  carrying  fuel  oil  in  double  bottom  tanks. 
Ship  Building  and  Shipping  Record  states  that  during  the  war 
it  was  found  possible  to  utilize  the  double  bottom  for  storing  oil 
without  any  great  alterations.  But  there  are  stringent  rules  laid 
down  by  the  registration  societies  and  the  Board  of  Trade  which 

157 


158 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


must  be  conformed  with.  The  flash  point  of  oil  fuel  is  not  to  be 
less  than  150°  F.,  according  to  the  former,  while  the  latter  require 
a  minimum  of  175°  F.  in  the  case  of  passenger  vessels.  Any 
double-bottom,  peak,  or  deep  ballast  tank  which  is  able  to  pass  the 


FIG.    56.      "Coaling   Ship." 

ordinary  watertightness  tests  can  be  used.  Owing,  however,  to 
the  spacing  of  rivets,  they  will  probably  not  be  oiltight,  but  if 
steps  are  taken  to  deal  with  any  leakage  which  may  occur,  they 
can  be  accepted.  To  limit  the  wash  from  side  to  side  the  center 
line  division  must  be  reasonably  oiltight,  but  it  is  sufficient 


FUEL    OIL    IN    STEAM    NAVIGATION  159 

merely  to  close  the  drainage  holes  by  bolted  plates.  Lloyds  re- 
quire that  the  tanks  should  stand  a  head  of  water  to  the  top  of  the 
rilling  pipes,  the  load  waterline,  or  12  ft.,  whichever  the  greatest. 
Special  attention  is  required  for  all  the  piping  and  pumping  ar- 
rangements, with  the  intention  of  preventing  oil  from  finding  an 
entrance  into  the  machinery  space,  and  draining  the  compart- 
ments as  completely  as  possible.  Coal  bunkers  will  usually  be 
found  unsuitable  in  construction;  it  is,  however,  suggested  that 
electric  welding  might  be  used  with  advantage.  Both  the  B.  O.  T. 
and  Lloyds  require  that  special  precautions  be  taken  for  dealing 
with  leakage ;  the  double  bottom  must  be  sheathing,  with  ceiling 
standing  on  grounds  at  least  2  in.  above  the  tank  top,  and  bulk- 
heads must  be  closely  sparred  to  prevent  cargo  from  touching 
the  plating  and  to  allow  leakage  to  drain  freely  to  the  gutters  and 
wells.  Oil  must  not  be  stored  in  a  compartment  adjacent  to  crew 
or  passengers,  and  cofferdams  must  be  fitted  between  oil  and 
fresh-water  tanks.  Thus,  although  the  details  require  careful 
treatment,  the  difficulties  of  conversion  of  existing  ships  are  not 
great.  From  experience  gained  during  the  war,  it  is  found  that 
on  no  occasion  has  the  cargo  been  deleteriously  affected  if  the 
details  have  been  thus  considered." 

The  ability  to  force  boilers  with  oil-fired  furnaces  to  50  per 
cent  above  normal  rating  without  a  great  strain  on  the  personnel 
is  a  decided  advantage,  and  the  quickness  with  which  an  oil- 
burning  ship  can  get  under  way  is  a  very  important  point  in  its 
favor  for  naval  use.  The  U.  S.  Shipping  Board,  in  announcing 
that  636  of  the  720  vessels  now  under  construction  for  the 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  will  burn  oil  fuel,  justify  their 
abandonment  of  coal  as  follows : 

1.  Less  bunker  space  required,  a  barrel  of  oil  being  equal 
to  one  ton  of  coal,  and  occupying  four-sevenths  of  the  space.  2. 
Oil  can  be  carried  in  spaces,  e.  g.,  the  double  bottom,  not  avail- 
able for  cargo.  3.  Cargo  can  be  carried  where  coal  is  now.  4. 
Greater  despatch  in  bunkering,  of  special  advantage  in  view  of 
the  shortage  of  ships.  5.  No  labor  or  machinery  required  to 
handle  ashes.  6.  No  stoking,  reducing  the  number  of  crew  and 
labor  costs.  7.  Uniform  pressure  is  easily  maintained,  insuring 
a  steady  speed,  and  reducing  boiler  depreciation  due  to  uneven 
temperature. 

In  a  5,000-ton  D.  W.  ship,  16  engineers  are  required  for  coal 


160  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

and  12  for  oil ;  in  an  11,000-ton  ship,  27  and  18  men  are  required 
respectively. 

The  Shipping  Board  fleet  of  steamers  is  composed  of  ap- 
proximately 10  million  deadweight  tons,  of  which  8  million  tons 
are  oil-fired.  The  Shipping  Board  has  established  bunkering  sta- 
tions at  St.  Thomas,  Rio  Janeiro,  St.  Vincent,  Bermuda,  the 
Azores,  Brest,  Dizerta,  Constantinople,  Colombo,  Singapore. 
Manila,  Shanghai,  Durban,  Sidney,  Wellington,  Honolulu  and 
Panama. 

The  Tide  Water  Oil  Company  in  ''Fuel  Oil"  gives  the  follow- 
ing data  from  a  report  to  the  Naval  Advisory  Board :  "A  5,000- 
ton  deadweight  coal  burning  ship,  2,000  rated  H.  P.,  steaming  at 
12  knots  per  hour,  will  require  approximately  37  days'  time  and 
1,060  tons  of  coal  to  make  a  round  trip  between  New  York  and 
French  channel  ports.  This  shows  that  21  percent  of  the  ship's 
deadweight  capacity  would  be  required  by  her  fuel.  The  same 
ship  burning  oil  could  make  the  trip  in  34  days,  and  requiring 
only  584  tons  of  oil,  or  less  than  12  percent  of  the  ship's  dead- 
weight capacity  for  fuel.  Thus  an  oil-burning  ship's  cargo 
capacity  is  increased  9  percent  or  468  tons  per  voyage.  By 
storing  the  oil  in  double  bottoms,  which  is  standard  practice,  a 
5,000-ton  deadweight  capacity  ship  can  carry  689  tons,  or  27  per 
cent  more  general  cargo  per  trip,  than  a  coal-burning  ship  of 
equal  deadweight.  The  speed  of  a  5,000-ton  boat  in  continuous 
service  has  been  increased  10  percent  by  changing  its  fuel  to  oil. 
This  is  largely  due  to  steady  steam  and  increased  boiler  capacity 
affording  maximum  and  constant  propeller  speed.  Hence,  a 
further  10  percent  of  cargo  goes  to  the  credit  of  oil-burning 
ships  during  their  steaming  time  only,  all  of  which  is  a  net  gain 
The  cost  of  handling  oil  fuel  is  about  70  percent  less  than  that 
of  coal,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  oil  is  handled  mechanically 
and  the  ash  handling  is  entirely  eliminated.  The  fire-room  crew 
is  materially  reduced,  generally  by  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the 
crew  necessary  for  coal  firing.  Efficiencies  of  boilers  are  in- 
creased by  8  to  10  percent  and  steaming  capacities  from  35  to 
50  percent,  which  is  due  to  more  rapid  and  perfect  combustion 
obtainable.  All  of  the  foregoing  saving  features  figure  materially 
in  the  dollars  and  cents  column." 

"Coaling  Ship"  has  always  been  regarded  as  a  most  arduous 
duty  (see  fig.  56).  Ships  of  the  "Wyoming"  class  in  the  navy 


FUEL    OIL    IN    STEAM    NAVIGATION 


161 


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CO~CO~(N~ 

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jo  suo^  ui  'XBp  J9d  UQ 

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162  FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 

carry  as  much  3,000  tons  of  coal,  which  is  lifted  aboard  by  large 
electric  and  steam  winches  after  large  bags  have  been  rilled  in  the 
lighters  or  colliers.  Coaling  a  ship  is  usually  an  all-day  job  and 
an  "all  hands"  detail,  whereas  fueling  on  an  oil  burner  is  both 
clean  and  speedy.  Fig.  57  shows  the  method  of  fueling-  with 
oil,  and  Fig.  58  shows  a  fueling  station  in  the  Orient. 

Although  oil  had  been  successfully  used  under  ship's  boilers 
for  a  long  time  prior  to  1904,  it  was  the  favorable  report  of  the 
U.  S.  Naval  "Liquid  Fuel"  Board  in  that  year  which  gave  a  de- 
cided impetus  to  -the  use  of  fuel  oil  on  the  sea.  The  investigation 
of  this  Board  was  conducted  with  such  scientific  accuracy  and  its 
report  was  so  comprehensive  that  the  Board's  findings  still  are 
regarded  as  irrefutable.  The  Board  made  an  extended  series  of 
tests  for  the  purpose  of  determining  the  relative  value  of 
coal  and  liquid  fuel  for  naval  purposes  and,  in  addition,  it  made 
a  careful  study  of  the  performance  of  the  S.  S.  Mariposa  of  the 
Oceanic  Steamship  Company  and  of  the  S.  S.  Nebraskan  of  the 
American-Hawaiian  Steamship  Company,  both  vessels  being  fitted 
for  oil  burning.  Table  15  gives  the  comparative  performances  of 
the  Ocean  Steamship  "Mariposa"  using  oil  as  fuel. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  the  test  of  the  Mariposa  with 
tests  of  the  8,800-ton  steel  steamer  West  Conob.  The  report  of 
the  Conob's  test  was  submitted  to  the  author  by  Mr.  C.  W.  Geiger 
and  covers  the  six  hours'  builder's  trial  off  S-an  Pedro,  California, 
on  May  20,  1919.  On  this  trial  trip  the  West  Conob's  three 
boilers  were  under  steam  pressure  of  200  Ibs.  The  temperature 
of  the  oil  to  burners  was  205  degrees,  and  that  of  the  stack  460 
to  475  degrees.  The  temperature  of  boiler  feed  water  was  200  to 
215  degrees.  An  average  of  411.1  gallons  of  oil  was  consumed 
per  hour. 

The  following  data  are  taken  from  the  log  of  the  S.  S.  West 
Conob,  on  voyage  1,  San  Francisco  to  Honolulu: 

Departure  9:14  a.  m.,  San  Francisco  Lightship,  June  13, 
1919. 

Arrived  4:26  a.  m.  Honolulu,  June  21,  1919. 

Average  knots  per  hour,  11.1. 

Average  fuel  per  day,  211.2  barrels. 

Average  fuel  per  knot,  .8. 

Revolutions  per  minute,  79.5. 


FUEL    OIL    IN   STEAM   NAVIGATION  163 


FIG.    57.      Fueling  With   Oil. 
(U.  S.   Navy  Official  Photograph) 


164  FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 

The  fuel  oil  capacity  of  the  West  Conob  is  6,359  barrels  in 
double  bottoms;  1,100  barrels  in  after  peak;  2,141  barrels  in  each 
of  two  deep  bottom  tanks ;  and  320  barrels  in  the  two  settling 
tanks,  making  a  total  of  12,060  barrels.  The  oil  storage  tanks 
were  filled  to  capacity  when  the  vessel  started  on  her  first  voyage 
to  Hong  Kong.  Nineteen  hundred  and  ninety-three  barrels  of 
oil  were  taken  on  at  Honolulu ;  3,850  barrels  were  taken  on  at 
Hong  Kong.  On  the  return  trip  2,100  barrels  were  taken  on  at 
Honolulu,  the  vessel  having  1,047  barrels  in  the  tanks  when  she 
arrived  at  S'an  Francisco. 

The  West  Concb  is  423  ft.  9  inches  in  length  over  all,  29  ft. 
9  in.  depth  and  beam  molded  of  54  feet.  Her  displacement,  light, 


FIG.   58.     A  fueling  station  at  Palik  Papan,  Dutch  Borneo. 

is  3,751  tons;  loaded,  12,401  tons.  She  is  equipped  with  a  triple 
expansion  reciprocating  engine  of  the  inverted  type  of  3,500 
h.  p.  The  cylinders  are  28^  in.  by  47  in.  by  78  in.  with  48-in. 
stroke.  There  are  three  Foster  water  tube  boilers,  each  having 
a  heating  surface  of  4,150  square  feet,  and  827  2-inch  tubes  and 
52  4-inch  tubes.  The  propeller  is  17  ft.  1  in.  diameter  with  a 
pitch  of  15  ft.  3  in.  and  a  developed  area  of  102  square  feet.  The 
designed  speed  is  11  knots  an  hour. 

The  vessel  is  equipped  with  the  Coen  system  of  mechanical 
oil  burning  equipment.  There  are  two  duplex  oil  pumps  6  in.  by 
4  in.  by  6  in.  with  a  capacity  of  30  gallons  each  per  minute.  These 
pumps  are  mounted  one  above  the  other,  each  being  large  enough 
to  supply  all  the  burners,  thus  one  set  is  always  held  in  reserve. 
They  draw  their  supply  from  the  settling  tanks  through  a  4-inch 


FUEL    OIL 


STEAM    NAVIGATION 


165 


pipe.  The  oil  is  pumped  from  one  settling  tank  at  a  time.  The 
discharge  pipes  leading  to  the  heaters  are  3  inches  in  diameter 
reduced  to  1  inch  at  the  heater,  of  which  there  are  three  sets, 


with  five  heaters  to  a  set.     Two  sets  are  operated  at  a  time,  the 
third  being  held  in  reserve. 

The  oil  enters  the  heater  unit  between  two  shells  and  takes  a 
spiral  course  upward  to  the  space  between  the  two  shell  heads 


166 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


from  whence  it  flows  down  through  the  seamless  steel  coil  and  out 
to  the  discharge  header.  In  the  event  of  an  operator's  closing  the 
inlet  and  outlet  oil  valves  without  cutting  out  the  steam  to  the 
heater,  thereby  causing  the  dead  oil  in  the  unit  to  heat  and  expand 
to  a  pressure  which  might  create  a  rupture,  a  safety  valve  is  pro- 
vided for  each  unit  and  set  to  operate  before  an  excessive  pressure 
can  be  attained. 


\ 


FIG.  60.     Coen  Hinged  Firing  Front  for   Scotch  Marine  Boilers. 

Each  individual  coil  is  under  control  and  can  be  cut  in  or 
out  independent  of  the  others.  No  cleaning  is  required  except 
blowing  out  with  steam.  The  inner  shell  being  a  floating  mem- 
ber eliminates  expansion  and  contraction  strains.  The  cold  oil 
entering  and  circulating  between  the  inner  and  outer  shells  acts  , 
as  an  insulator,  making  covering  of  the  units  unnecessary. 

A  standard  temperature  for  all  fuel  oils  cannot  be  fixed  for 
the  "efficient  temperature"  will  vary  as  the  different  oils  vary  in 


FUEL    OIL    IN    STEAM    NAVIGATION  167 

viscosity  and  gravity.  However,  a  temperature  ranging  from  210 
degrees  F.  to  230  degrees  F.  has  been  proven  to  be  the  most 
efficient  stage  for  residuum  fuel  oil.  Lighter  oils  require  a  much 
lower  temperature.  Heavy  Mexican  oils  require  a  temperature 
ranging  from  275  to  300  degrees  F.  The  steam  pressure  to  the 
heaters  is  reduced  to  100  Ibs.  For  stand-by  the  oil  is  maintained 
at  a  pressure  of  30  to  35  Ibs.  and  for  full  speed  ahead  125  Ibs. 
There  are  five  burners  to  each  boiler.  The  oil  pipes  leading  from 
the  heaters  to  the  burners  are  \l/>  inches  in  diameter  and  reduced 
to  y% -inch  at  the  burner.  The  burner  consists  of  a  special  angle 
valve,  a  short  piece  of  tubing,  a  tip,  a  cap  to  hold  the  tip  in  place 
and  a  steel  rod  running  through  the  burner  to  provide  means  for. 
regulating  the  discharge  from  the  tip.  With  this  burner,  the  fire- 
man has  at  his  immediate  command  not  only  means  for  regulating 
the  size  of  his  operating  fire,  but  means  whereby  he  can  instantly 
substitute  a  stand-by  and  vice  versa,  with  one  quick  turn  of  the 
burner  valve  wheel.  During  the  noon  hour  when  tied  up  at  dock, 
all  burners  are  shut  off  except  one. 

In  starting  a  fire  in  a  cold  boiler,  the  fireman  first  sees  that 
all  valves  in  the  burner  feed  lines  are  closed.  He  then  tracks 
the  valve  in  the  return  line,  and  starts  the  oil  pump.  He  then 
admits  steam  to  the  oil  heater  and  allows  the  oil  to  circulate 
through  the  lines  until  the  thermometer  shows  the  proper  tem- 
perature. When  the  oil  has  attained  the  proper  temperature,  he 
closes  the  valve  in  the  return  line,  and  opens  the  dampers  in  the 
firing  front  and  stack.  He  inserts  a  lighted  torch  directly  in 
front  of  the  burner  tip  and  opens  the  burner  valve  wide.  He 
then  opens  the  valve  in  the  burner  feed  line  wide  when  the  fire 
readily  lights.  Fig.  59  shows  this  system  of  burners  which  is 
installed  in  the  Matson  Navigation  Company's  steamer  Maiioa, 
and  Fig.  60  shows  the  hinged  firing  front  for  a  mechanical  burner. 

The  Matson  Navigation  Company  operates  7  oil  burning 
steamers  of  their  own  between  San  Francisco  and  Hawaiian 
Islands,  and  nine  Shipping  Board  steamers.  The  company's  own 
steamers  consume  about  600,000  barrels  of  fuel  oil  yearly.  The 
Matson  steamer  Matsonia  has  a  fuel  oil  capacity  of  21,000  barrels. 
This  steamer  consumes  10,000  barrels  on  the  round  voyage  be- 
tween San  Francisco  and  Honolulu.  The  steamer  takes  on  oil  to 
her  full  capacity  at  San  Francisco,  and  delivers  the  surplus  into 
tanks  at  Honolulu  for  use  by  the  steamers  operated  by  the  com- 


168 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


pany  for  the  Shipping  Hoard,  and  for  use  of  the  company's  own 
steamers  in  case  they  need  it.  The  Manoa,  with  a  capacity  of 
16,500  barrels,  consumes  6,500  barrels  on  the  round  trip.  This 
vessel  also  delivers  the  surplus  into  tanks  at  Honolulu  for  the 
same  purpose  as  the  Matsonia.  Fig.  61  shows  the  oil-burning 
French  S.  S.  Lieutenant  de  Missiessy,  of  the  Compagnie  des 
Messageries  Maritimes. 

The  Staples  and  Pfeiffer  oil-burning  system  has  been  in 
operation  on  a  large  number  of  steamers  on  the  Pacific  for  many 
years.  This  system  is  somewhat  different  in  operation  from  the 
Dahl  and  Coen  systems,  as  the  system  atomizes  the  oil  by  means 
of  steam  or  compressed  air.  The  oil  is  heated  and  forced  through 
the  burners  by  pumps,  and  in  addition  steam  or  compressed  air  ii 
introduced  into  the  burner  which  atomizes  the  oil.  (See  fig.  62.) 
The  following  data  are  from  the  steam  trials  of  the  U.  S.  R.  C. 
Golden  Gate,  which  is  equipped  with  the  Staples  &  Pfeiffer  oil- 
burning  system : 


Run,  November  23,  1911. 

BABCOCK  &  WILCOX  WATER  TUBE  BOILER, 

TRIPLE-EXPANSION   ENGINE. 

Duration   hours                                                         .  . 

1.50 

1.00 

Water  evaporated,  totals  for  run  Ibs  

8332.00 

8013.00 

Total  equivalent,  from  and  at  212  deg.  F.  Ibs.  . 
Fuel  oil  corrected  for  moisture  —  total  Ibs  

9798.43 
614.90 

8098.76 
600.00 

WATER  PER  HOUR— 

Main  engine  and  aux  

..Ibs.  . 

5320.66 

7664.50 

Oil  pump                                            

.  .  Ibs  .  . 

87.00 

98.00 

Oil  burners 

Ibs 

147.00 

250.50 

Total  for  all  purposes  

.  .  Ibs  .  . 

5554.66 

8013.00 

Total  equivalent,  from  and  at  212  deg.  F  
Fuel  oil  corrected  for  moisture  per  hour  

....Ibs  
.  .Ibs  

6532.29 
409.90 

9098.76 
600.00 

Evaporation,  Ibs.  water  per  bbl.  oil  

.  .  ..Ibs  

13.55 

13.35 

Factor  of  evaporation 

1.176 

1.135 

Evaporation,  Ibs.  water  per  lb.  oil,  equivalent  . 
Total  heating  surface  

.  .  ..Ibs  
.  .sq.  ft  .  . 

15.99 
2034.00 

15.16 
2034.00 

Evap.  per  sq.  ft.  head  surface,  per  hour,  equivalent  
Percent  of  total  equiv.  evaporation  for  atomizing  oil  

3.21 
2.25 

4.47 
-       2.75 

Efficiency  of  boiler                                .           

.  .  .  .  percent  .  .  . 

82.55 

78.50 

PRESSURE  BY  GAUGE— 

At  boiler 

Ibs 

145.00 

144.00 

At  engine                                                                  .  . 

Ibs  

135.00 

133.00 

First  receiver  

.  .  Ibs  

21.00 

36.00 

Second  receiver.  

.  .  ..Ibs  

1.00 

4.00 

Vacuum 

inches 

23.00 

23.00 

Oil  to  burner 

Ih* 

45.00 

45.00 

TEMPERATURES  F.,   DEGREE,  AVERAGE— 

Feed  

.  .  .  .  Deg.  Fahr. 

89.00 

125.00 

Stack  

.  .  .  .  Deg.  Fahr. 

453.00 

516.00 

Fuel  oil  to  burner  

.  .  .  .  Deg.  Fahr. 

124.00 

128.00 

Main  engine  revolutions  per  minute  
Total  h.  p.  mach.  eng.  and  aux  

125.90 
253.92 

147.60 
396.85 

Horsepower  of  auxiliaries,  estimated  

17.10 

19.54 

Water  per  hour  per   H.  P.,  equivalent  
Fuel  oil  per  hour  per  H.  P.,  total  

.'.'.'.'.ibs.'.  '.  '/.'.'. 

24.65 
1.61 

21.82 
1.51 

Fuel  oil  per  hour  per  I.  H.  P  

1.73 

1.58 

FUEL  OIL— 

Specific  Gravity                                      0.952 

Fire  point 

280.00 

Degrees,  Baume'  17.00 

Calorific  value 

B.  t.  u.  .  .  . 

18648.00 

Flash  ooint.  .                                    .  .190.00 

Moisture  

.005 

FUEL    OIL    IN    STEAM    NAVIGATION 


169 


170  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

Probably  nothing  can  illustrate  the  superiority  of  oil  over 
coal  as  fuel  for  steamers,  more  clearly  than  the  history  of  the 
Oceanic  Steamship  Company's  steamers  Ventura  and  Sonomo. 
These  vessels  were  originally  coal  burners  operating  between 
San  Francisco  and  Australian  ports.  Because  of  the  disadvan- 
tages of  coal  as  fuel  these  steamers  were  tied  up  in  San  Francisco 
Bay  for  over  two  years.  They  were  converted  to  oil  burners  in 
1915  by  the  Union  Iron  Works  of  San  Francisco,  and  have  been 
in  operation  between  San  Francisco  and  Australian  ports  ever 
since.  It  has  never  been  necessary  during  these  six  years  of  oper- 
ation to  make  any  repairs  to  boilers. 

The  Ventura  is  equipped  with  eight  boilers,  24  furnaces, 
8,000  H.  P.  The  Sonoma  is  of  similar  equipment.  These  steam- 
ers burn  from  19,000  to  21,500  barrels  on  the  round  voyage,  the 
distance  for  the  round  voyage  being  13,475  miles.  The  total  tank 
capacity  is  18,290.  This  amount  is  taken  on  at  San  Francisco.  At 
Honolulu  a  sufficient  amount  of  oil  is  taken  on  so  that  the  supply 
will  total  16,500  barrels  when  leaving  that  port,  and  on  the  return 
trip  sufficient  oil  is  taken  on  at  Honolulu  so  that  there  will  be 
4,500  barrels  in  the  tanks,  which  is  ample  to  bring  the  vessel  to 
San  Francisco,  and  still  have  a  three  days'  supply  on  hand.  These 
steamers  are  of  10,000  tons  displacement  each.  The  rated  speed 
is  17  knots  an  hour,  but  they  only  maintain  a  speed  of  \Sl/2  knots 
an  hour  on  the  trip  to  Australia  and  return. 

The  Shipping  Board  steamers  are  now  being  equipped  with 
heating  coils  in  the  double  bottoms  so  that  the  steamers  may  use 
the  heavy  oil  which  is  found  at  certain  points.  The  heavy 
Mexican  oils  especially  require  these  coils  so  that  the  oil  may  be 
heated  in  order  to  be  handled  by  the  oil  pumps.  This  will  en- 
able the  steamers  to  be  operated  on  any  kind  of  oil. 


CHAPTER    X 
OIL-BURNING  LOCOMOTIVES 

In  1882  Thomas  Urquehart,  Superintendent  of  Motive 
Power  of  the  Griazi-Tsaritzin  Railway  of  Russia  converted  143 
of  the  locomotives  of  this  railroad  from  coal-burners  to  oil-burn- 
ers and  made  service  tests  on  them  which  showed  that  one  pound 
of  oil  equaled  1.78  pounds  of  coal.  The  oil  had  a  calorific  value 
of  18,600  B.  t.  u.  and  the  coal  used,  a  Russian  anthracite,  con- 
tained 24,920  B.  t.  u. 

In  the  year  1888,  Dr.  Charles  B.  Dudley  presented  to  the 
Franklin  Institute  of  Philadelphia  a  comprehensive  paper  dealing 
with  the  subject  of  oil  fuel  for  locomotives.  Dr.  Dudley  founded 
his  conclusions  largely  on  a  series  of  experiments  which  had  been 
conducted  by  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  Company.  He  deter- 
mined that,  based  on  the  relative  heat  values  of  the  fuels,  one 
pound  of  oil  was  equivalent  to  one  and  three-quarters  pounds  of 
coal ;  while  taking  into  account  the  various  incidental  economies 
due  to  the  use  of  oils,  one  pound  of  the  latter  was  practically 
equivalent  to  two.  pounds  of  coal.  Dr.  Dudley  pointed  out  the 
following  advantages  which  oil  has  over  coal  as  a  fuel  for  loco- 
motives : 

1.  Less  waste  of  fuel:     First,  from  smoke  and  unburned 
gases  which  go  out  the  smoke  stack;  second,  cinders, 
which  are  carried  through  the  tubes  and  deposited  in  the 
smoke  box   or   exhausted   from  the   stack;  third,   fuel, 
which  escapes  through  the  grates. 

2.  Economy  in  handling  fuel. 

3.  Economy  in  handling  ashes. 

4.  Economy  in  cleaning  locomotives,  the  absence  of  smoke 
and  cinders  in  using  oil  being  the  source  of  this  saving. 

5.  Less  waste  of  steam  at  the  safety  valve.    The  oil  is  under 
positive  and  practically  instantaneous  control,  and  with 
proper  attention  the  working  steam  pressure  of  the  boiler 
may  be  maintained  under  all  conditions  of  operation  with- 
out the  safety  valve  being  allowed  to  open.     Steam  lost 
through  the  safety  valve  simply  means  so  much  fuel  gone 

171 


172  FUEL  OIL  IX  IXDUSTRY 

to  waste.  The  occasional  raising  of  safety  valves  cannot 
be  prevented  with  the  best  handling  of  an  ordinary  coal 
fire. 

6.  Economy  in  cleaning  ballast.    The  cinders  thrown  out  of 
the  smoke  stack  of  coal-burning  locomotives  are  not  only 
a  loss  on  account  of  not  being  burned,  but  also  because 
they  fall  on  the  track  and  choke  the  ballast,  especially 
where    rock   ballast   is   used,   thus   interfering   with   the 
drainage. 

7.  Economy  of   space  in  carrying  and   stowing  fuel,  as  a 
pound  of  oil  does  not  occupy  as  much  space  as  a  pound 
of  coal  and  a  higher  heat  value  is  obtained  per  pound 
of  oil  than  of  coal. 

8.  No  fire  from  sparks. 

9.  Very  little  smoke  and  no  cinders. 

10.  Possibility  of  utilizing  more  of  the  heat. 
A  report  of  the  Indian  Government  on  a  comparison  of  oil 
and  coal  on  the  Northwestern  Railway  of  India  gives  the  follow- 
ing advantages  of  burning  oil  in  locomotives  :  ( 1 )  Release  of  en- 
gines and  rolling  stock  required  for  carrying  coal ;  (2)  saving  cost 
of  unloading  and  stacking  coal  and  putting  on  tenders;  (3)  loco- 
motives cleaner  and  more  comfortable  for  the  staff,  and  easier 
work  for  the  firemen,  also  there  is  a  saving  of  one  fireman  per 
engine,  as  Indian  locomotives  as  a  rule  carry  two;  (4)  saving  of 
fuel  during  period  locomotives  are  standing  at  stations  or  in 
yards;  (5)  rapidity  with  which  steam  can  be  raised;  (6)  larger 
blast  pipes  can  be  used  to  reduce  back  pressure  in  cylinders;  (7) 
less  wastage  of  fuel  in  transit  and  in  stock  and  probably  consider- 
ably less  stolen;  (8)  absence  of  sparks  and  smoke  when  the  ad- 
mission of  air,  steam  and  fuel  are  properly  regulated.  No  ashe-; 
to  be  removed  from  ashpan  or  smoke-box,  no  ashpits  to  be 
cleaned." 

The  recent  determinations  made  by  the  Missouri,  Kansas, 
and  Texas  Railroad  of  Texas  are  of  interests  This  road  figures 
its  1918  fuel  (coal)  cost  around  $6,250,000,  and  its  1920  fuel  (oil) 
cost  at  less  than  $4,750,000,  or  a  saving  by  substitution  of  oil  for 
coal  of  approximately  $1,500,000.  Detailed  investigation  by  ex- 
perts have  shown  that  3^  barrels  of  oil  are  the  equivalent  of  one 
ton  of  coal,  and  the  cost  of  handling  the  oil  is  one  cent  a  barrel. 

a.   Oil   News,    Sept.    5,   1919,   p.   44. 


OIL    BURNING    LOCOMOTIVES 


173 


Cost  of  movement  of  coal  from  mines  to  point  of  use  averaged 
4  mills  per  ton  per  mile  last  year.  Fuel  coal  consumption  aggre- 
gated 630,000  tons  at  average  cost  of  $3.50  f.  o.  b.  mines,  or 
$2,200,000,  and  average  handling  cost  was  approximately  17.95 
cents  per  ton,  or  nearly  $111,000,  and  average  transportation  cost 
was  83.1  cents  or  around  $513,500,  a  total  of  over  $2,800,000. 
Oil  cost  is  figured  initially  as  follows,  in  round  figures :  Cost  of 
oil  $1,320,000;  handling,  $21,500;  transportation,  $854,000;  cost 
of  oil  used  in  heating,  $65,800;  total,  $2,261,300  for  2,226,000 
barrels.  A  report  to  this  railroad  on  the  waste  of  coal  in  locomo- 
tive consumption  follows :  "Coal  in  the  first  24  hours  after  it 
leaves  the  mines  will  depreciate  2  percent  on  account  of  evapora- 


FIG.  62.     General  Arrangement  of  the   Staples  and  Pfeiffer  System  for  Scotch  Marine 

Boilers. 

tion  of  the  moisture  it  contains.  Investigation  heretofore  made 
also  shows  that  the  average  100,000  capacity  car,  in  addition  to 
running  2  percent  short  on  account  of  evaporation,  will  average 
1,000  pounds  additional  shortage  on  account  of  discrepancies  in 
tare  weights,  mine  weights,  etc.  There  are  further  losses  due  to 
theft  and  loss  in  transit.  No  figures  are  available  to  show  just 
what  coal  loses  through  deterioration  in  handling,  and  through 
storage,  but  it  has  been  thoroughly  established  that  every  time 
coal  is  handled  or  moved  it  loses  heat-producing  value.  Various 
authorities  have  agreed  that  there  is  an  average  loss  equivalent 


174 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


to  5  percent  between  the  mine  and  the  locomotive  due  to  the 
causes  above  enumerated,  i.  e.,  evaporation,  theft,  loss  in  transit, 
deterioration  in  handling,  storage,  etc." 

Among  the  many  foreign  railways  which  have  converted  all 
or  part  of  their  locomotives  from  coal-burners  to  oil-burners  are : 
The  Austrian  State  Railways,  Western  Railway  of  France,  Paris, 
Lyons,  and  the  Mediterranean,  Paris  and  Orleans  Railway,  South 
Russian  Railway,  Roumanian  State  Railway,  Los  Angeles  Rail- 
way, Taltal  Railway,  Mexican  Railway,  Chilian  Railway,  Tehuan- 


Carrier 
Do/nper 


FIG.    63.      Oil   Burning   Equipment   as   Applied   to    Santa    Fe   Locomotives. 

tepee  National  Railway,  and  the  Mexican  National  and  Inter- 
oceanic  Lines. 

The  United  States  Geological  Surveya  names  the  following 
railways  in  the  United  States  which  use  fuel  oil  in  their  loco- 
motives : 

Arizona: 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway   System. 
Southern   Pacific   Company. 


a.      Petroleum   in   1917,   by  John   D.    Northrop. 


OIL   BURNING    LOCOMOTIVES 


175 


Arkansas: 

Kansas   City    Southern   Railway    Co. 
California: 

Atchison,  Topeka   &   Santa  Fe   Railway   System. 

Los  Angeles  &  Salt  Lake   Railroad. 

Northwestern   Pacific  Railroad  Co. 

San  Diego  &  Arizona  Railway  Co. 

San  Diego  &  Southeastern  Railway  Co. 

Southern  Pacific  Co. 

Tonopah   &  Tidewater  Railroad   Co. 

Western   Pacific   Railroad   Co. 
Florida: 

Florida  East  Ccast  Railway  Co. 
Georgia: 

Central   of   Georgia  Railway   Co.    (on  Tybee   district). 


-ffcoaea 

Rre*  f-tstoe  *StfM/?9 


FIG.    64.      Locomotive   Firebox   and   Fire   Pan   Arrangement   with 

Oil  Burners. 
Idaho: 

Chicago,  Milwaukee  &   St.   Paul  Railway  Co. 

Great  Northern  Railway   Co. 

Oregon    Short    Line    Railroad    Co. 

Oregon-Washington  Railroad  &   Navigation   Co. 

Washington,   Idaho   &  Montana  Railway   Co. 
Kansas: 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway   System. 

Kansas  City   Southern  Railway  Co. 
Louisiana: 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway  System. 

Houston  &  Shreveport  Railroad   Co. 

Kansas  City   Southern   Railway  Co. 

Louisiana  Railway  &  Navigation  Co. 

Louisiana   Western   Railroad   Co. 

Morgan's  Louisiana  &  Texas  Railroad  &  Steamship   Co. 

New  Orleans,  Texas  &  Mexico  Railway. 


176  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

Missouri: 

Kansas  City   Southern    Railway   Co. 
Montana: 

Chicago,   Burlington   &   Quincy    Railroad    Co. 

Chicago,   Milwaukee  &   St.   Paul   Railway   Co. 

Great  Northern  Railway   Co. 

Oregon  Short  Line  Railroad  Co. 
Nebraska: 

Chicago   &  Northwestern    Railway    Co. 
Nevada: 

Atchison,  Topeka   &   Santa   Fe   Railway   System. 

Bullfrog    Goldfield    Railroad    Co. 

Las  Vegas   &  Tonopah   Railroad   Co. 

Los  Angeles   &   Salt   Lake   Railroad. 

Southern  Pacific  Co. 

Tonopah  &  Goldfield  Railroad  Co. 

Tonopah  &  Tidewater   Railroad   Co. 

Western  Pacific  Railroad  Co. 
New   Mexico: 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway   System. 

El  Paso  Southwestern   System. 

Southern  Pacific  Co. 
New  York: 

Delaware  &  Hudson  Co.    (in  the  Adirondacks). 

New   York   Central   Railroad    Co.    (in    the    Adirondacks,    including   Old    Forge   and 

the    Fulton   Chain). 
Oklahoma: 

Atchison,  Topeka  &  Santa  Fe  Railway   System. 

Kansas  City   Southern  Railway  Co. 
Oregon : 

Great  Northern  Railway   Co. 

Northern  Pacific   Railway   Co. 

Oregon   Trunk   Railway. 

Oregon-Washington  Railroad  &  Navigation  Co. 

Southern  Pacific  Co. 

Spokane,   Portland   &   Seattle    Railway   Co. 
South  Dakota: 

Chicago,  Burlington   &   Quincy   Railroad    Co. 

Chicago   &  Northwestern    Railway   Co. 
Texas: 

Atchison,  Topeka  &   Santa  Fe  Railway   System. 

Beaumont,   Sour  Lake  &  Western   Railway. 

Fort  Worth  &  Denver  City  Railway  Co. 

Galveston,  Harrisburg  &  San  Antonio  Railway  Co. 

Galveston,    Houston   &   Henderson    Railroad    Co. 

Houston,  East  &  West  Texas  Railway   Co. 

Houston  &  Texas  Central  Railroad  Co. 

International   &  Great  Northern  Railway   Co. 

Orange  &  Northwestern   Railroad. 

St.   Louis,   Brownsville   &  Mexico  Railway. 

San  Antonio  &  Aransas  Pass   Railway   Co. 

Texarkana  &  Fort   Smith  Railway   Co. 

Texas  &  New    Orleans    Railroad   Co. 

Texas  &  Pacific  Railway. 

Trinity  &   Brazos  Valley   Railway   Co. 
Utah: 

Los  Angeles  &  Salt   Lake  Rarlroad   Co. 

Southern  Pacific  Co. 
Washington: 

Bellingham  &  Northern   Railway   Co. 

Chicago,    Milwaukee    &   St.    Paul    Railway    Co. 


OIL    BURNJXG    LOCOMOTIVES 


177 


Great   Northern   Railway    Co. 
Northern   Pacific   Railway    Co. 
Oregon  Trunk  Railway. 

Oregon-Washington    Railroad    &    Navigation    Co. 
Spokane,    Portland    &    Seattle    Railway    Co. 
Washington,   Idaho  &  Montana  Railway   Co. 
Wyoming: 

Chicago,  Burlington   &  Quincy  Railroad  Co. 
Chicago   &   Northwestern    Railway    Co. 

The  quantity  of  fuel  oil  consumed  by  all  railroad  companies 
that  operated  oil-burning  locomotives  in  the  United  States  in 
1917  was  45,707,082  barrels,  a  gain  of  3,580,665  barrels,  or  8.5  per 
cent  over  1916,  and  a  larger  consumption  than  in  any  other  year. 


FIG.  65.  The  Booth  Oil  Burner  used  as  a  standard  on  the  Santa  Fe. 
The  oil  falls  on  the  steam  jet  and  is  atomized  and  carried  to  the  flash 
wall  of  the  firebox.  The  edge  of  the  steam  jet  extends  Ms-inch  beyond 
the  edge  of  the  oil  opening  on  each  side,  so  all  the  oil  is  atomized, 
money  being  permitted  to  fall  in  the  pan  unburned. 

The  total  distance  covered  by  oil-burning  engines  was  146,997,144 
miles,  and  the  average  distance  covered  per  barrel  of  fuel  oil 
consumed  was  3.2  miles.  Oil-burning  locomotives  were  operated 
in  1917  over  32,431  miles  of  track  in  31  states. 

The  Santa  Fe  Railway  System  has  at  the  present  time  (June, 
1920)  approximately  3,160  locomotives,  of  which  two-thirds  use 
coal  and  one-third  use  oil.  The  general  arrangementa  of  oil- 
burning  equipment  representing  present  practice  on  the  Santa  Fe 
Railway  is  shown  in  figs.  63  and  64.  Fig.  65  shows  the  Booth 
oil- burner  used  as  standard  on  the  Santa  Fe.  Mr.  Bohnstengel 

a.   Oil    Burning    Practice    on     Locomotives,    Walter    Bohnstengel,     Proceedings    of 
Twelfth   Annual   Convention,    International   Railway   Fuel   Association. 


178 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


gives  the  following  data  on  Santa  Fe  locomotives :  "The  burner 
is  made  and  tested  in  the  Santa  Fe  shops.  Good  results  are  ob- 
tained from  lV2-inch  burners  on  small  locomotives,  while  the 
larger  power  is  provided  with  2  and  2^ -inch  burners.  For  the 
Mid-Continent  oil,  a  1^-inch  pipe  is  used  to  convey  the  oil  from 
the  tank  to  the  firebox,  while  with  California  and  Mexican  oil,  2- 
inch  piping  is  used  to  the  firing  valve.  Both  the  oil  and  steam 
connections  between  engine  and  tender  must  be  flexible  to  follow 
the  curves  and  variations;  the  older  types  were  rubber  hose  and 
are  still  used  to  some  extent,  but  as  rubber  is  not  durable  for 
either  oil  or  steam,  it  has  been  largely  replaced  by  flexible  metal- 
lic joints." 

The  number  of  barrels  of  oil  required  to  produce  a  locomo- 
tive boiler  evaporation  equivalent  to  one  ton  of  coal  for  various 
conditions  is  shown  by  Table  16. 


r 


FIG.   66.     Von   Boden-Ingalls   Burners. 

TABLE  16.     FACTOR  FOR  EQUIVALENT  EVAPORATIVE  VALUES, 
COAL  vs.  OIL 


Coal, 

Barrels  California  Oil 

Barrels  Mid  Continent  Oil 

Heat  Value, 

To  One  Ton  Coal 

To  One  Ton  Coal 

B.  t.  u.  Per 

Pound 

Hand  Fired 

Stoker  Fired 

Hand  Fired 

Stoker  Fired 

11,500 

2.95 

2.56 

3.07 

2.66 

11,600 

2.97 

2.58 

3.10 

2.68 

11,700 

3.00 

2.60 

3.13 

2.71 

11,800 

3.03 

2.62 

3.15 

2.73 

11,900 

3.05 

2.64 

3.18 

2.75 

12,000 

3.08 

2.66 

3.20 

2.78 

12,100 

3.10 

2.69 

3.23 

2.80 

12,200 

3.13 

2.71 

3.26 

2.82 

12,300 

3.15 

2.73 

3.28 

2.85 

12,400 

3.18 

2.75 

3.31 

2.87 

12,500 

3.20 

2.77 

3.34 

2.89 

OIL    BURNING    LOCOMOTIVES 


179 


Locomotive  Furnace  Efficiency — Oil  Burner,  75  per  cent. 
Coal,  hand  fired,  60  per  cent.  Coal,  stoker  fired,  52  per  cent. 

California  Oil — Heat  values,  18,550  B.  t.  u.  per  Ib,  Weight. 
8.0  Ib.  per  gal. 

Mid  Continent  Oil— Heat  value,  19,000  B.  t.  u.  per  Ib. 
Weight,  7.5  Ib.  per  gal. 

Oil— 42  gal.  per  bbl.     Coal,  2,000  Ibs.  per  ton. 

The  figures  in  Table  16  hold  only  for  the  relations  stated. 

The  average  cost  of  coal  and  oil  for  locomotive  use  from 
1909  to  1919  inclusive,  are  shown  in  Table  17. 

TABLE  17.     AVERAGE  COAL  AND  OIL  COSTS 


Year 

Cost  of  Coal 
Per  Ton 

Cost  of  Oil 
Per  Barrel 

1909 

$1  .  530 

$ 

1910 

1.650 

0.527 

1911 

1.630 

0.472 

1912 

1.690 

0.532 

1913 

1.800 

0.500 

1914 

1.900 

0.446 

1915 

1.745 

0.400 

1916 

1.820 

0.580 

1917 

2.380 

0.697 

1918 

3.140 

0.997 

1919 

3.510 

1.424 

The  general  average   for  all  locomotives  on  the  system  is 
shown  by  Table  18. 

TABLE  18.    LOCOMOTIVE  FUEL  RESULTS 
A.  T.  &  S.  F.  Railway  System 


Gross  1000  Ton  Miles 

Total  Fuel—  Lb. 

Fuel  Per  1000 

Ton  Mile—  Lb  . 

Year 

Coal 

Oil 

Coal 

Oil 

Coal 

Oil 

1909 

16,040,276 

8,070,236 

3,648,196,030 

1,189,504,930 

227 

147 

1910 

18,824,990 

9,868,037 

4,126,982,270 

1,492,019,110 

219 

151 

1911 

-19,292,704 

11,310,659 

3,991,532,000 

1,660,989,870 

207 

147 

1912 

18,278,168 

12,842,472 

3,814,399,600 

1,850,896,400 

209 

144 

1913 

20,626,718 

12,095,065 

3,942,891,200 

1,704,359,263 

191 

141 

1914 

21,036,407 

10,678,616 

3,818,514,710 

1,414,208,050 

181 

132 

1915 

21,962,754 

13,655,095 

3,779,843,000 

1,677,782,860 

172 

123 

1916 

22,455,557 

17,587,327 

3,759,233,600 

2,139,531,200 

167 

122 

1917 

25,015,575 

20,195,544 

4,296,203,900 

2,380,453,820 

171 

118 

1918 

24,324,979 

19,094,296 

4,135,067,900 

2,190,272,735 

170 

115 

1919 

25,556,469 

*• 

17,353,521 

4,113,172,500 

1,950,162,870 

161 

113 

180 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


The  gross  ton  mileage  figures  on  which  the  fuel  consumption 
is  based  are  arrived  at  by  multiplying  the  miles  run  by  locomotives 
by  the  total  gross  weight  of  the  trains  hauled.  The  weight  of  the 
locomotive  is  not  included. 


The  oil  is  usually  brought  to  the  division  and  to  intermediate 
storage  tanks  in  tank  cars,  from  which  the  oil  is  drained  into 
sumps  by  pits  or  pipes  and  is  thereafter  pumped  by  means  of 


OIL    BURNING    LOCOMOTIVES 


181 


centrifugal,  rotary  or  reciprocating  pumps  into  storage  or  service 
tanks. 

The  oil  is  taken  on  the  tender  from  the  service  tank  through 
a  crane  similar  to  water  cranes.  At  terminals  these  cranes  are 
frequently  some  distance  apart  but  at  fuel  stations  on  the  road 
the  water  and  oil  cranes  are  usually  so  located  that  water  and  oil 
may  be  taken  at  the  same  time,  resulting  in  a  minimum  consump- 
tion of  time  for  taking  fuel  and  water.  There  is  always  danger 
of  explosion  resulting  from  igniting  the  gases  coming  from  the 
oil  and  hence  precaution  is  essential  in  oil  handling.  Proper  sign 
boards  are  placed  wherever  necessary.  Some  places  are  simply 
marked  "Danger — keep  lighted  torches  or  lanterns  away,"  at 
other  places  more  elaborate  signs  which  give  reasons  for  pre- 
caution are  evident.  To  lessen  this  danger  to  a  certain  minimum, 
the  flash  point  is  specified  in  purchasing  oil.  The  oil  must  also 
be  free  from  dirt  and  water  that  would  cause  poor  combustion. 

The  amount  of  atomizer  required  is  an  item  that  requires 
judgment.  One  locomotive  requires  little  steam,  another  more  to 
properly  atomize  the  oil.  In  connection  with  some  recent  tests,  a 
pressure  gauge  was  placed  in  the  atomizer  line  next  to  the  burner 
on  two  freight  locomotives,  the  one  carrying  200  pounds,  the 
other  225  pounds  boiler  pressure.  The  atomizer  steam  is  supplied 
by  a  ^4-inch  pipe  h'ne,  the  steam  being  regulated  by  means  of  a 
24-inch  globe  valve.  The  average  pressure  at  the  burner  for  dif- 
ferent valve  openings  was  as  shown  in  Table  19. 

TABLE  19.    ATOMIZER  PRESSURES 


Atomizer  Valve  Handle 

Pressure  —  Lb 

.  Per  Sq.  In. 

Boiler 

At   Burner 

"Cracked  open" 

200  to  225 

5  to    10 

l/s  turn 

200  to  225 

15  to    25 

%  turn  
H  turn  
^/2  turn                                                             •  • 

200  to  225 
200  to  225 
200  to  225 

30  to    40 
50  to    70 
130  to  150 

Wide..;  

200  to  225 

160  to  180 

These  locomotives  had  2^ -inch  Booth  burners  with  standard 
^2-inch  steam  atomizer  opening." 

The  Southern  Pacific  Railway  has  a  large  number  of  oil- 
burning  locomotives  in  service  on  its  lines.  The  Southern  Pacific 


182  FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 

uses  the  Von  Boden-Ingalls  burnera  shown  in  fig.  66.  In  front 
of  the  oil  outlet  is  placed  a  corrugated  lip,  which  retains  any 
drippings  from  the  burner,  and  is  said  to  assist  in  atomizing  the 
oil.  The  burner  is  placed  in  the  front  end  of  the  fire-pan.  Ad- 
mission of  air  takes  place  through  a  number  of  horizontal  tubes, 
placed  under  the  burner,  and  these  tubes  can  be  covered  by  an 
external  damper  operated  from  the  cab.  The  Von  Boden-Ingalls 
burner  is  so  arranged  that  oil  may  be  taken  in  either  at  the  top 
or  bottom  of  the  oil  chamber,  as  is  the  more  convenient.  The 
opening  not  in  use  is  closed  by  a  plug. 

Fig.  67  shows  the  arrangement  of  oil-burning  locomotive 
equipment  as  used  by  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works.  It  was 
formerly  their  practice  to  place  the  burner  in  the  rear  end  of  the 
furnace  and  burn  the  oil  under  a  brick  arch.  In  service,  however, 
when  the  engine  was  being  heavily  worked,  the  draft  frequently 
lifted  the  flame  over  the  arch,  thus  causing  incomplete  combustion 
and  an  excessive  amount  of  smoke.  The  horizontal  draft  ar- 
rangement with  burner  placed  in  the  front  end  of  the  furnace  has 
been  found  in  practice  to  give  very  much  better  results. 

Mr.  Charles  E.  Kern  is  authority  for  the  following  state- 
ment :  "The  80,000,000  barrels  of  fuel  oil  now  used  annually  on 
the  steam  railroads  of  the  country  is  reported  to  the  Interstate 
Commerce  Commission  as. 20,000,000  tons  of  coal  and  is  equiva- 
lent to  one-seventh,  speaking  roughly,  of  the  entire  fuel  require- 
ments of  the  railroads  of  the  United  States.  This  estimate  is 
made  upon  the  basis  of  statistics  for  the  first  six  months  of  1919. 
During  these  six  months  the  steam  railroad  freight  service  used 
35,302,800  tons  of  coal  or  equivalent  in  fuel  oil.  The  passenger 
service  used  14,770,000  tons,  switching  service  10,187,000  tons, 
mixed  special  service  1,001,000  tons  and  stationary  plants  8,200,- 
000  tons.  Double  these  figures  and  we  have  a  total  of  about 
140,000,000  tons  of  coal  or  its  equivalent  in  fuel  oil,  and  of  the 
entire  amount  20,000,000  tons  was,  in  fact  80,000,000  barrels,  of 
fuel  oil.  Thirty-six  of  the  great  steam  railroad  systems  of  the 
United  States  use  in  whole  or  in  part  fuel  oil.  The  Central 
Western  Division  consumes  annually  about  21,500,000  barrels  of 
fuel  oil.  This  division  includes  the  Santa  Fe,  Chicago,  Burlington 
&  Quincy,  Northwestern  &  Pacific,  Los  Angeles,  Salt  Lake,  Rock 
Island,  Colorado  Southern,  Fort  Worth  &  Denver  City,  Southern 
Pacific  and  the  Arizona  Eastern.  The  Northwestern  region  con- 


a.  Oil   Burning   Locomotives,   The   Baldwin   Locomotive   Works. 


OIL    BURNING    LOCOMOTIVES  183 

sumes  about  6,250,000  barrels  of  oil  as  follows :  Chicago  & 
Northwestern,  1,000,000  barrels;  Chicago,  Milwaukee  &  St.  Paul, 
1,250,000. barrels;  Great  Northern,  1,900,000  barrels;  Southern 
Pacific,  1,300,000  barrels;  the  Spokane,  Portland  &  Seattle,  750,- 
000  barrels ;  and  the  Northern  Pacific,  275,000  barrels.  The  New 
York  Central  normally  uses  approximately  4,000,000  barrels  of 
fuel  oil  annually  and  the  Delaware  &  Hudson  about  1,800,000  bar- 
rels. The  Long  Island  road  uses  fuel  oil.  The  Florida  East 
Coast  requires  about  1,000,000  barrels;  the  Wichita  Falls  & 
Northwestern  requires  about  1,250,000  barrels;  the  Missouri, 
Kansas  &  Texas,  1,250,000  barrels;  Gulf,  Colorado  &  Santa  Fe, 
7,000,000  barrels ;  the  Galveston  Wharf,  250,000  barrels ;  Trinity 
&  Brazos  Valley,  900,000  barrels ;  Morgan's  Louisiana  &  Texas, 
6,000,000  barrels;  Houston,  Belt  Terminal,  750,000  barrels; 
Texas  &  Pacific,  10,000,000  barrels;  Gulf  Coast  Lines,  5,000,000 
barrels;  St.  Louis  Southwestern,  5,000  barrels;  Kansas  City 
Southern,  1,000,000  barrels;  International  &  Great  Northern, 
1,500,000  barrels;  Fort  Worth  Belt  Line,  50,000  barrels;  St. 
Louis  &  San  Francisco,  900,000  barrels;  Missouri,  Kansas  & 
Texas  Railway  of  Texas,  3,000,000  barrels,  and  the  Gulf,  Colo- 
rado &  Santa  Fe,  80,000  barrels." 


CHAPTER   XI 
THE   MANUFACTURE   OF   IRON   AND   STEEL 

The  importance  of  a  nation  depends  upon  its  agricultural 
resources,  its  fuel  deposits,  and  its  iron  deposits.  It  is  a  dif- 
ficult matter  to  determine  which  of  these  resources  is  the  most 
important  or  which  has  contributed  most  largely  to  the  advance 
of  a  country.  Undoubtedly  the  great  industrial  predominance 


FIG. 


Iron    Ore    Blast    Furnace. 


of  the  United  States  is  due  to  the  fact  that  this  country  is  rich  in 
all  three  resources.  It  is,  however,  possible  that  industrial 
prominence  depends  more  upon  iron  deposits  than  upon  the  other 
two  factors,  because  the  foundation  of  our  present  industrial 
structure  is  steel.  Steel  is  the  most  important  of  all  manufactured 


184 


MANUFACTURE    OF    IRON   AND    STEEL 


185 


products,  and  the  development  of  special  grades  is  largely  respon- 
sible for  the  enormous  amount  of  building  construction,  the  great 
extension  of  railroads,  and  the  great  multiplication  and  expansion 
of  industry  that  has  occurred  in  recent  years.  Steel  is  a  finished 
product  of  which  iron  is  the  raw  material.  The  ores  of  iron  are 
red  hematite  (Fe2  O3),  brown  hematite,  the  limonite  of  the  miner- 
alogist (2  Fe2  O3  and  3  H  ,O),  magnetite  (Fe3  O4),  and  siderite 
(Fe  Co3),  these  being  mixed  with  more  or  less  silica,  clay,  etc., 
besides  containing  a  small  percentage  of  manganese,  phosphorus 
and  sulphur. 

To  extract  the  metallic  content  from  any  ore,  it  is  necessary 
to  get  rid  of  the  impurities.  With  all  metals  this  is  done  by  melt- 
ing the  ore  by  intense  heat  and  adding  what  is  known  to  the  metal- 
lurgist as  a  flux.  A  flux  is  any  mineral,  usually  lime,  which 


FIG.  69.     The  Bessemer  Converter. 


unites  with  the  impurities  of  the  ore  to  form  a  liquid  slag  which 
floats  upon  the  molten  metal.  The  metal  can  then  be  drawn  off 
from  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  but  is  still  in  a  more  or  less 
impure  state  and  needs  to  be  refined.  This  is  the  case  with  iron. 
Crude  iron  is  made  in  very  large  circular  vertical  blast  furnaces 
(see  fig.  68),  which  are  lined  with  refractory  fire  brick.  In  the 
blast  furnace  ore  and  limestone,  which  is  used  as  a  flux,  together 
with  the  coke  necessary  for  providing  the  intense  heat,  are  raised 
to  the  top  of  the  furnace  by  a  hoist  (A)  and  discharged  into  the 
hopper  (B)  and  these  materials  fall  into  the  hopper  (D)  at  the 
top  of  the  furnace  by  lowering  the  bell  (C).  When  the  bell  (E) 
is  lowered  the  materials  are  dropped  into  the  furnace.  The  two 
bells  and  hoppers  are  provided  to  prevent  the  escape  of  large 
volumes  of  gas  from  the  top  of  the  furnace.  In  order  to  provide 
sufficient  air  for  combustion  of  the  coke  enormous  volumes  heated 


186 


FUEL  OIL  IX  INDUSTRY 


to  1,100  to  1,500  degrees  F.  are  blown  through  a  set  of  pipes 
called  "tuyeres''  near  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  at  a  pressure  of 
12  to  15  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  burning  coke  melts  the 
charge,  producing  intense  local  heat.  About  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  of  coke  is  used  per  pound  of  pig  iron  made.  The  air  blast 
coming  through  the  tuyeres  is  heated  by  passing  it  through 


irtKWOOD  No  4 
(OIL  BURNER 


-t  BURNEF. 


FIG.    70.     Sketch    of    Oil    Burning    Open-Hearth. 
(Courtesy  of  Tate-Jones  &  Co.,  Inc.) 

"stoves"  which  are  large  cylindrical  structures  rilled  with  a 
checker-work  of  fire  brick.  One  blast  furnace  usually  has  three 
or  four  "stoves."  After  the  chemical  action  is  completed  within 
the  furnace  the  crude  iron  is  drawn  off  into  moulds  called  "pigs." 
Pig  iron,  however,  contains  impurities  which  must  be  burned 
away  before  a  good  quality  of  steel  is  produced.  Of  the  im- 
purities found  in  iron,  graphite  is  unique,  inasmuch  as  it  is  rarely 
found  in  other  metals.  It  is  present  in  the  form  of  flakes  or  thin 


MANUFACTURE    OF   IRON   AND    STEEL         187 


FIG.   71.     Water  Cooled   Oil-Burner   in  Open-Hearth  Furnace. 


FIG.   72.     Swinging  Oil  Burners  in  Open-Hearth   Furnace. 
(Courtesy  of  Tate-Jones  &  Co.,  Inc.) 


188 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


plates  in  sizes  varying  from  microscopic  proportions  to  approxi- 
mately l/s  sq.  in.,  disseminated  throughout  the  body  of  the  metal 
and  forming  an  intimate  mechanical  mixture.  It  is  necessary 
that  the  iron  from  which  steel  is  to  be  made  be  low  in  sulphur  and 
low  in  phosphorus,  but  both  of  these  impurities  are  always  pres- 
ent and  must  be  burned  away.  When  sulphur  is  present  in  too 


r,^j3r-<M«V), 

i  fO.yMete*' 


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r\<S    '  j   T-*   "      " 
CJ»j  P'KLtl^.  a*- IVa. 

_  _£«rj_  =r±^H-Z^i-,  _ 


»a 

^•«a 


n»C«  C+tevuit 


r*5M«i*|'b 

tJ**rkf4        j  l\ft 

oj^TH^tirii^jj  |T 


/ 
/ 
it. 

/O 
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FIG.    73.     Layout   of  Oil    System   at   Middletown   Plant   of   American    Rolling    Mill    Co. 


great  quantities  in  steel,  the  steel  is  rendered  hot  short,  that  is, 
when  heated,  on  account  of  the  presence  of  the  sulphur  the  steel 
will  bend  or  break.  The  amount  of  sulphur  present  for  good 
results  should  not  exceed  0.06  percent.  It  is  much  better  to  keep 
the  sulphur  content  below  0.04  percent,  which  is  the  generally 
accepted  specification  for  open  hearth  steel.  Phosphorus  in- 
creases the  strength  of  steel  but  renders  the  metal  cold  short  or 
brittle.  For  constructional  purposes  steel  should  be  specified  with 
phosphorus  not  to  exceed  0.04  percent,  which  is  the  general 
specification  for  open  hearth  steel. 

Steel,  like  cast  iron,  is.  an  alloy  of  iron  and  carbon,  or  iron, 
carbon  and  other  metals.     The  dividing  line  between  steel  and 


MANUFACTURE    OF   IRON   AND    STEEL        189 


190  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

cast  iron  is  at  a  carbon  content  of  2.2  per  cent,  i.  e.,  all  iron  with  a 
carbon  content  greater  than  this  amount  is  cast  iron,  and  all  under 
this  amount  is  steel  or  wrought  iron.  The  physical  properties 
of  steel  are  greatly  influenced  by  the  amount  of  carbon,  alloying 
elements  and  impurities  present.  The  process  of  manufacture 
has  much  to  do  with  the  value  of  the  metal  for  various  purposes. 

The  general  influence  of  carbon  on  steel  is  to  give  the  steel 
greater  tenacity  and  also  to  render  it  harder  and  stiffen  Man- 
ganese increases  the  tensile  strength  of  steel  while  the  ductility  is 
probably  somewhat  decreased.  Silicon,  as  an  alloying  element, 
tends  to  increase  the  tensile  strength,  but  to  decrease  the  elonga- 
tion and  reduction  of  area.  Nickel  has  a  strengthening  effect 
without  decreasing  the  ductility.  Chromium  tends  to  make  steel 
intensely  hard  and  to  give  it  a  high  elastic  limit  in  the  hardened 
or  suddenly  cooled  state,  so  that  it  is  neither  deformed  per- 
manently nor  cracked  by  extremely  violent  shocks.  Chromium 
accelerates  the  case  hardening  process.  Vanadium  seems  to 
render  the  steel  more  homogeneous  and  to  render  the  effects  of 
the  other  elements  greater  than  in  steels  without  vanadium,  but 
otherwise  of  a  similar  composition. 

Steel  is  made  from  pig  iron  by  four  different  methods.  The 
Bessemer  process  is  the  cheapest  and  produces  the  largest  quan- 
tity. The  Bessemer  process  is  conducted  in  the  converter  shown 
in  fig.  69.  The  crucible  process  and  the  cementation  process 
produce  only  small  quantities  of  steel  supplying  the  demand  for 
fine  tools,  watch  springs,  needles,  etc.  For  constructional  work 
the  most  reliable  method  is  the  open  hearth.  In  the  open  hearth 
process  a  flame  playing  upon  the  open  bath  of  the  molten  metal 
removes  the  impurities.  In  the  open  hearth  process  pig  iron, 
scrap  iron  and  iron  ore  are  melted  in  regenerative,  reverberatory 
furnaces.  Without  the  regenerative  principle  a  sufficient  tem- 
perature cannot  be  maintained  to  keep  the  charge  properly  fused 
ufter  the  impurities  are  oxidized.  For  this  reason,  air  for  com- 
bustion is  heated  to  over  1,000°  F.  before  it  enters  the  combustion 
chamber.  Measured  quantities  of  ore,  iron  scale  or  other  oxides 
added  to  the  bath  of  molten  metals  react  with  the  impurities 
present  and  serve  to  keep  the  mass  thoroughly  agitated.  Silicon, 
manganese  and  carbon  of  the  pig  having  a  greater  affinity  for 
oxygen,  oxidize  first,  protecting  the  iron  of  the  pig  and  scrap 
from  oxidation.  Any  oxidized  iron  will  form  slag  on  coming  into 
contact  with  silica. 


MANUFACTURE    OF   IRON   AND    STEEL        191 

The  carbon  is  oxidized  by  reaction  with  the  iron  ore.    Figure 

70  shows  an  open  hearth  furnace  equipped  with  an  oil  burner. 
Oil  as  a  fuel  for  open  hearth  furnaces  has  many  advantages.    The 
repair  cost  of  the  fuel  oil  burner  is  about  40  percent  less  than 
when  gas  is  used.    A  more  even  temperature  may  be  maintained 
because  the  heat  of  the  furnace  is  easily  regulated.    When  oil  is 
used  a  different  chemical  reaction  takes  place  in  the  furnace  and 
a  superior  quality  of  steel  is  produced  and  a  lower  grade  of  scrap 
iron  can  be  used.     For  these  reasons  many  large  steel  plants  in 
the  East  have  equipped  their  furnaces  with  fuel  oil  burners.    Fig. 

71  shows  an  open  hearth  furnace  at  Erie,  Pennsylvania,  equipped 
with  a  water-cooled  oil  burner.   Fig.  72  shows  an  open  hearth  fur- 
nace in  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  using  swinging  oil  burners. 


FIG.    75.     Charging    an    Oil-Burning   Open-Hearth    Furnace. 
(Courtesy  American  Rolling   Mill   Co.) 

The  equipment  of  open  hearth  furnaces  with  oil 'burners  is 
inexpensive.  One  open  hearth  furnace  having  one  burner  for 
each  end  of  the  furnace  must  have  a  reversing  stand  for  reversing 
the  flow  of  the  oil  and  when  the  furnace  is  acting  as  the  atomizing 
agent.  This  reversing  stand  is  located  on  the  charging  flood.  It 
must  also  have  a  pumping  system  for  pumping  oil  from  the  stor- 
age tank  and  regulating  the  supply  to  the  burner.  In  addition,  it 
must  have  a  reducing  valve  for  regulating  the  atomizing  and  the 
necessary  valves,  tank  and  pipe.  For  firing  open  hearth  furnaces 
a  swinging  burner  is  commonly  used.  A  water-cooled  burner  is 
used  when  the  end  of  the  furnace  is  so  near  to  the  7T~II  of  the 


192  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

building  that  there  is  no  room  for  a  swinging  burner  or  when  the 
furnaces  are  close  together.  A  circulation  of  water  through  a 
24-inch  pipe  prevents  the  burner  from  being  melted  off  by  the 
heat  of  the  furnace. 

The  pressure  at  which  the  oil  is  fed  to  the  burner  varies  con- 
siderably at  different  plants  but  oil  at  45  pounds  and  air  or  dry 
steam  for  atomizing  at  40  pounds  will  probably  give  the  best  re- 
sults under  the  average  conditions.  The  question  of  whether 
compressed  air  or  dry  steam  is  best  for  atomizing  seems  to  be  an 
open  one.  About  one-half  of  the  plants  use  steam  and  the  other 
half  air  as  an  atomizing  agent.  It  is  very  important,  however, 
that  the  steam  be  dry  and  it  is  usually  well  to  put  a  drip  in  the 
steam  line  near  the  furnace  and  in  some  cases  provide  for  super- 
heating the  steam  before  it  enters  the  burner.  An  air  or  steam 
pressure  reducing  valve  should  be  put  in  the  line  to  cut  the  com- 
pressor or  boiler  pressure  down  to  the  proper  point  for  atomizing. 

The  American  Rolling  Mill  Company  of  Middletown,  Ohio, 
in  the  manufacture  of  its  Armco  Iron  uses  fuel  oil  in  many  of 
its  operations.  Fig.  73  shows  the  layout  of  its  plant  with  respect 
to  fuel  oil  distribution.  Fig.  74  shows  the  method  of  construction 
of  its  oil  storage  tank.  Fig.  75  shows  the  method  of  charging 
open  hearth  furnaces  at  this  plant. 


X 

i 


CHAPTER  XII 
HEAT  TREATING  FURNACES 

Heat  treatment,  it  is  generally  understood,  comprises  the 
heating  of  steel  to  a  temperature  slightly  above  the  critical  point ; 
quenching  in  oil  or  water ;  re-heating  to  some  temperature  to  give 
the  desired  physical  properties  and  cooling  slowly.  Mr.  James  II. 
Herron  in  the  Journal  of  the  Cleveland  Engineering  Society, 
September,  1914,  says  that  "the  importance  of  determining  the 
correct  temperature  and  exercising  the  greatest  care  in  heating 
cannot  be  over  emphasized.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  higher 
carbon  and  alloy  steels.  If  the  value  of  the  steel  is  not  actually 
impaired,  a  resulting  condition  may  occur  which  would  render 
the  treatment  valueless. 

"One  of  the  most  important  forms  of  heat  treatment  is  case 
carbonizing  or  so-called  case  hardening.  Steel  to  be  carbonized  is 
packed  in  some  carbonaceous  material  and  heated  for  a  given 
length  of  time  at  temperatures  varying  from  1600  to  1750  degrees 
F.,  depending  upon  the  depth  of  penetration  of  the  carbon  desired. 

"It  has  become  common  practice  to  give  case  carbonized  parts 
a  double  heat  treatment,  i.  e.,  heat  for  the  refinement  of  the  core, 
quench  in  oil,  subsequently  heat  at  a  lower  temperature  for  the 
refinement  of  the  case  and  quench  in. water,  after  which  the  ma- 
terial may  be  drawn  to  the  extent  necessary  for  the  physical 
properties  desired. 

"In  the  heat  treatment  of  steel  castings,  proper  annealing  is 
of  the  greatest  importance.  Unfortunately  commercial  annealing 
is  not  what  it  should  be,  and  if  much  is  expected  from  the  material 
it  should  be  properly  annealed  or  heat  treated.  By  heat  treating 
large  steel  castings  with  the  carbon  range  of  0.20  to  0.60  percent 
the  elastic  limit  can  be  increased  about  50  percent  with  little  de- 
crease in  the  ductility." 

Mr.  E.  J.  Janitzky,  Metallurgical  Engineer,  Illinois  Steel 
Company,  in  the  Journal  of  the  American  Steel  Treaters  Society, 
December,  1918,  gives  the  following  discussion  of  the  theories 
of  heat  treatment :  "Although  not  going  too  deeply  into  the  his- 
tory of  the  theories  that  have  been  developed. in  regard  to  hard- 

193 


194 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


ening,  it  might  be   interesting   to   describe  in  non-metallurgical 
phraseology  their  contents.     There  are  several  theories  for  the 


FIG.  76. 


A  Furnace  for  Case  Hardening  and  Heat  Treating  Geais. 
(Courtesy   of   Tate,   Jones   and   Co.,   Inc.) 


hardening  of  steel,  the  more  important  one  being  the  stress 
theory,  the  carbon  theory  and  solution  theory.  The  stress  theory 
basis  its  contention  on  the  high  stressing  of  the  outer  shell  of  the 


FIG.    77.     Continuous    Rod-Heating    Furnace. 
(Courtesy  of  Tate,   Jones   and    Co.,   Inc.) 

steel  when  shrinking  onto  the  interior  and  the  stress  set  up  in 
the  crystal  change  from  the  hot  to  the  cold  metal.    The  fact  that 


FIG.  78.     Oil-Burning,  Tilting  Crucible  Type,  Brass  Melting  Furnace. 
(Courtesy  Wayne  Oil  Tank  &  Pump  Company) 


FTG.  79.     Tempering  Bath  Furnaces. 


196 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


cold  working  hardens  steel  is  offered  in  support  of  this  theory. 
The  carbon  theory  contends  that  the  hardness  resulting  from 
quenching  steel  is  due  to  the  condition  the  carbon  exists  in  in 
the  steel,  it  being  recognized  that  carbon  can  easily  exist  in  several 
allotropic  forms.  The  solution  theory  contends  that  carbon  is  in 
solid  solution  with  the  iron.  This  seems  to  be  the  most  logical 
and  all  phenomena  can  be  explained  by  it.  It  will  likewise  be 
obvious  that  no  theory  so  far  presented  fully  satisfies  for  an 
acceptable  explanation  of  the  phenomena  involved  and  that  new 


FIG.    80.     A  Large  Car-Type  Furnace. 

avenues  of  approach  must  be  found  to  obtain  a  correct  answer 
to  this  apparent  enigma.  The  most  progress  in  heat  treatment 
has  been  attained  with  the  advent  of  alloy  steel.  With  few  ex- 
ceptions all  alloy  steels  are  heat  treated  for  use,  the  treatment 
developing  in  them  physical  properties  they  are  capable  of  pos- 
sessing. No  general  laws  regarding  the  effects  of  treatment  of 
alloy  steels  can  be  laid  down.  Some  steels  when  quenched  from 
a  high  heat  are  hardened  and  others  are  softened,  the  latter  being 
generally  those  with  the  higher  contents  of  certain  of  the  alloying 
elements.  In  respect  to  the  effects  of  heat  treatment,  each  steel 


HEAT    TREATING    FURNACES  197 

is  considered  by  itself.  Developments  in  the  manufacture  of  alloys 
steel  and  in  the  heat  treatment  of  steel  have  occurred  somewhat 
simultaneously  during  the  past  thirty  years.  The  highest  merit  is 
obtained  from  the  adoption  of  both  developments  together,  that 
is,  the  use  of  heat  treated  alloy  steels.  Usually  heat  treatment  has 
contributed  more  to  the  superior  properties  of  the  metal  than  has 
the  use  of  alloys.  The  effect  of  alloying  elements  in  alloy  steels 
are  various,  thus  nickel  increases  the  elastic  limit  compared  to 
tensility,  chromium  increases  hardness  of  quenched  steel,  and 
manganese  destroys  magnetic  susceptibility  effects,  all  of  which 
are  valuable  for  certain  purposes." 

Most  of  the  advantages  of  fuel  oil  under  boilers  are  retained 
in  its  use  for  furnaces.  Oil  is  especially  desirable  in  furnaces 
because  it  gives  a  clean  heat  and  one  which  is  very  readily  kept 
uniform.  Forging  and  heating  furnaces  of  all  kinds  can  be 
started  and  shut  down  instantly  with  fuel  oil  and  an  early  attain- 
ment of  the  maximum  temperature  is  reached  with  accurate  and 
easy  regulation,  hi  enameling  and  japanning  work,  especially, 
where  dust  must  be  avoided,  fuel  oil  is  being  used  more  and  more. 
Fuel  oil  is  in  common  use  in  all  heat  treating  furnaces,  especially 
in  those  for  large  and  small  annealing,  tool  dressing,  bolt  heading, 
drop  forging,  heavy  forging,  rivet  rod,  nut  punching,  continuous 
rod,  plate  and  flanging,  flue  welding,  pipe  bending,  pack  harden- 
ing, case  hardening  and  tempering.  Figs.  76,  77,  78r  79  and  80 
show  oil  burners  applied  to  various  types  of  furnaces. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

FUEL  OIL  IN  THE  PRODUCTION  OF 
ELECTRICITY 

The  production  of  electricity  in  the  United  States  in  1919, 
according  to  the  U.  S.  Geological  Survey,  totaled  38,900,000,000 
kilowatt-hours,  of  which  24,160,000,000  kilowatt-hours,  or  62.1 
percent,  were  produced  by  fuel  power.  During  the  year  1919  the 
total  fuel  consumption  for  the  production  of  electricity  by  public 
utility  plants  was  as  follows :  Coal,  35,000,000  short  tons ;  oil, 
11,050,000  barrels;  gas,  21,700,000  M.  cu.  ft.  The  quantities  of 
fuel  consumed  in  January,  February  and  March,  1920,  by  states, 
in  the  production  of  electric  power  are  given  in  Table  20.  From 
this  table  it  will  be  seen  that  California,  Texas,  Florida,  and 
Arizona  depend  chiefly  upon  oil  as  a  source  of  power.  Table  21 
shows  the  source  of  power  in  the  United  States  for  these  three 
months. 

The  figures  for  January,  February  and  March  are  based  on 
returns  received  from  about  2,800  power  plants  of  100  kilowatt 
capacity,  or  more,  engaged  in  public  service,  including  central 
stations,  electric  railways,  and  certain  other  plants  which  con- 
tribute to  the  public  supply.  The  capacity  of  plants  submitting 
reports  of  their  operation  is  about  90  percent  of  the  capacity  of 
all  plants  listed.  The  average  daily  production  of  electricity  in 
kilowatt-hours  for  the  three  months  was  as  follows:  January, 
124,600,000;  February,  119,800,000;  and  March,  121,800,000.  Of 
this  electricity,  33  percent  in  January  and  February  and  38  per- 
cent in  March  were  produced  by  water  power. 

The  mean  daily  output  for  the  first  quarter  in  1919  was 
105.3  million  kilowatt-hours  and  the  mean  daily  output  for  the 
first  quarter  of  1920  was  122.2,  an  increase  of  16  percent. 

In  1918  in  California,  $4,742,000  was  spent  for  fuel  oil  by 
companies  engaged  in  the  production  of  electricity.  The  follow- 
ing description  of  California  oil-burning  installations  in  central 
stations  is  of  interest* : 

"It  has  been  found  necessary  in  line  with  the  Pacific  Gas  & 
Electric  Company's  policy  of  continuous  service  to  maintain 

C.  W.  Geiger,  Oil  News,  April  5,  1920. 

198 


FUEL    OIL   IN   ELECTRICITY   PRODUCTION 


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FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


%  steam-generating  plants   in  the  larger  load   centers,   each   plant 
being  capable  of  carrying  all  the  connected  load,  in  the  district 

TABLE  21.— SOURCES  OF  ELECTRIC  POWER.     THOUSANDS  OF 
KILOWATT-HOURS  PRODUCED 


By  Water  Power 


By  Fuels 


State 

January 

February 

March 

January 

February 

i 
March 

Alabama  

34,864 

36,780 

39,354 

14,452 

7,929 

9,736 

Arizona  

8,567 

6,883 

8.899 

6,276 

5,708 

6,423 

Arkansas  

132 

120 

130 

9,290 

8,326 

9,056 

California  

166,806 

148,839 

203,595 

113,446 

111,797 

92,222 

Colorado  

12,784 

12,082 

12,665 

22,811 

19,282 

20,416 

Connecticut  

9,069 

8,553 

17,607 

59,25b 

49,801 

52,120 

Delaware  

0 

0 

() 

6,807 

6,138 

6,263 

District  of 

Columbia  

0 

0 

0 

23,317 

20,763 

21,356 

Florida  

965 

818 

1,024 

10,897 

10,461 

11,211) 

Georgia  

43,816 

42,016 

43,697 

10,696 

8,260 

8,770 

Idaho  

48,564 

43,336 

43,065 

1,348 

1,133 

1,315 

Illinois  

14,831 

14,147 

14,588 

260,723 

239,928 

246,478 

Indiana  

2,943 

2,741 

3,637 

91,817 

71,503 

73,351 

Iowa  

55,538 

49,415 

54,417 

31,733 

30,337 

38,84(5 

Kansas  

1,741 

1,240 

1,598 

35,913 

32,391 

32,916 

Kentucky  

0 

0 

0 

23,449 

21,768 

22,711 

Louisiana  

0 

0 

0 

18,126 

16,755 

17,884 

Maine  

23,491 

20,866 

23,658 

1,577 

1,614 

918 

^laryland 

284 

327 

131 

31,261 

26,889 

21,530 

Massachusetts  

21,987 

16,248 

34,367 

147,914 

129,365 

123,042 

Michigan  

51,749 

47,291 

64,503 

138,379 

129,875 

130,523 

Minnesota  

28,053 

26,705 

32,889 

36,157 

30,083 

25,681 

Mississippi  

0 

0 

0 

5,848 

4,783 

5,075 

Missouri  

5,720 

3,987 

4,916 

54,143 

52,672 

53,740 

Montana  

89,574 

90,411 

104,991 

596 

540 

515 

Nebraska  

909 

662 

668 

20,436 

17,305 

18,028 

Nevada  

3,416 

3,420 

3,180 

852 

845 

882 

New  Hampshire  

4,322 

4,001 

5,223 

5,166 

4,289 

2,319 

New  Jersey  

143 

102 

161 

101,478 

88,120 

94,975 

New  Mexico  

53 

57 

59 

1,593 

1,447 

1,529 

New  York  

227,033 

203,282 

248,218 

382,194 

338,960 

328,475 

North  Carolina  

52,880 

45,576 

57,560 

10,745 

9,040 

9,670 

North  Dakota  

0 

0 

0 

2,718 

2,270 

2,170 

Ohio  

1,490 

2,101 

3,222 

259,335 

234,061 

252,803 

Oklahoma  

217 

182 

231 

17,163 

15,245 

15,935 

Oregon  

32,359 

28,323 

32,125 

7,845 

8,624 

7,788 

Pennsylvania  .  .  .  .«  

45,359 

43,500 

56,881 

329,625 

294,483 

326,074 

Rhode  Island  

355 

436 

719 

37,114 

32,599 

26,876 

South  Carolina  

60,531 

52,212 

55,165 

5,768 

4,563 

4,976 

South  Dakota  

477 

474 

1,162 

3,382 

3,258 

2,789 

Tennessee  

39,443 

31,664 

40,125 

9,926 

11,581 

9,818 

Texas  

74 

231 

380 

55,424 

49,651 

53,266 

Utah  

13,932 

14,635 

18,565 

0 

8 

12 

Vermont 

15,467 

11,732 

18,969 

786 

1,038 

344 

Virginia  

13,809 

16,441 

21,310 

30,435 

24,240 

22,219 

Washington  
West  Virginia  

103,981 
1,776 

94,907 
2,334 

98,839 
2,101 

4,480 
96,221 

2,849 
83,501 

3,450 
94,479 

Wisconsin  

37,843 

32,321 

43,585 

42,336 

43,606 

43,733 

Wyoming  

152 

145 

154 

4,585 

4,178 

4,162 

Total  

1,277,499 

1,161,543 

1,418,233 

2,584,839 

2,313,862 

2,358,869 

Total  by  water  power  and  fuels  

3,862,338 

3,475,405 

3,777,102 

In  some  of  the  States  electricity  is  produced  by  the  use  of  wood  as  fuel.  During 
March  about  17.0  million  kilowatt-hours,  or  0.4  percent  of  the  total  for  the  month, 
were  produced  by  wood-burning  plants.  The  following  list  gives  the  States  and  their 
output  in  millions  of  kilowatt-hours,  which  produces  the  larger  amounts  of  electricity 
by  the  burning  of  wood:  Oregon,  7.4;  Minnesota,  1.7;  Wisconsin,  1.3  Idaho,  1.3; 
Washington,  1.1;  California,  0.5;  Louisiana,  0.6;  and  Florida,  0.4. 

which  it  is  meant  to  supply ;  thus  Station  A  in  San  Francisco, 
with  four  turbines  of  capacity  of  57,000  kilowatt,  Oakland  with 
21,000  kilowatts  and  Sacramento  with  5,000  kilowatts.  Ordi- 


FUEL    OIL   IN   ELECTRICITY   PRODUCTION    201 

narily  the  steam  turbines  are  connected  in  parallel  with  the  trans- 
mission line  and  then  if  the  line  goes  out  of  service  the  turbines 
automatically  pick  up  the  load.  Station  A  in  emergency  cases 
has  generated  one-third  of  the  company's  entire  output.  It  is 
operated  365  days  yearly. 

Probably  no  other  electric  light  and  power  plant  in  the  world 
can  handle  its  fuel  in  such  large  quantities  and  so  quickly  as  Sta- 
tion A.  The  oil  is  stored  in  two  steel  tanks,  one  of  25,000  bar- 


FIG.   81.     Oil   Heaters   and   Pumps   in   California   Electric   Plant. 

rels  capacity  and  one  of  10,000  barrels  capacity.  Two  separate 
pipe  lines  lead  from  the  tanks  to  the  company's  wharf,  through 
which  oil  may  be  discharged  from  steamers. 

The  plant  uses  5,000  barrels  of  fuel  oil  a  day  at  the  maximum 
and  2,500  barrels  a  day  on  the  average.  The  oil  is  heated  to  a 
temperature  of  165  to  175  degrees  and  fed  to  the  furnaces  at  a 
pressure  of  65  Ibs.  The  fuel  oil  pumps  discharge  into  a  common 


202 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


pipe  4  inches  in  diameter  that  leads  to  the  burners.  (See  fig.  81.) 
The  burners  are  of  special  design,  and  were  made  by  the  com- 
pany's workmen.  Steam  for  atomizing  the  oil  is  supplied  to  the 
burners  at  normal  load  of  200  Ibs.,  through  a  T\-inch  hole,  but 
on  a  heavy  load  the  steam  is  by-passed  through  a  ^-inch  hole. 
The  plant  originally  was  equipped  with  27  boilers,  but  with  the 
installation  of  a  new  15,000-kilowatt  turbine  in  July,  1919,  four 
of  the  original  boilers  were  removed  and  eight  822  horsepower 
vertical  water  tube  boilers  were  installed.  There  are  four  fuel  oil 
pumps  and  four  oil  heaters  in  the  boiler  room.  (See  fig.  82.) 

In  December,  1908,  a  9,000  kilowatt  turbine  was  installed  in 
the  Oakland  steam  plant  of  the  Pacific  Gas  &  Electric  Company, 


FIG.    82.     Boiler  Room   Showing  Piping   for   Oil   Burners   in   California   Electric   Plant. 

but  in  1911  it  was  deemed  advisable  to  further  protect  the  con- 
sumers of  the  company  by  installing  a  sister  unit  of  greater 
capacity  to  meet  any  emergency  that  might  arise,  so  in  1911  a 
12,000  kilowatt  vertical  turbine  was  installed.  This  new  turbine 
is  supplied  with  steam  from  four  773-horsepower  water  tube  boil- 
ers of  the  Parker  type,  each  boiler  containing  366  four-inch  tubes 
20  feet  long,  heating  surface  7,734  square  feet  and  grade  surface 
48  square  feet. 

The  turbine  can  be  operated  in  parallel  with  the  main  trans- 
mission lines  of  the  company  or  separately  on  the  Oakland  load. 
The  arrangement  of  the  plant  is  such  that  extension  can  be  made 


FC/£L   O/L   IN   ELECTRICITY   PRODUCTION 


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204  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

in  the  future  without  in  any  way  interrupting  the  service.  The 
efficiency  of  the  turbines  either  when  floating  on  the  line  and  used 
for  voltage  regulation  or  in  giving  assistance  to  the  transmission 
lines  has  been  fully  demonstrated.  Their  ability  to  quickly  take 
a  load  in  cases  of  emergency  renders  them  invaluable  when 
viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  auxiliaries  to  the  hydro-electric 
system. 

The  steam-generating  station  of  5,000  kilowatt  capacity  at 
Sacramento  is  connected  with  the  transmission  lines  from  Col- 
gate, Alto,  and  Folsom  systems  as  well  as  the  main  transmission 
line  irom  Oakland.  With  its  installation  of  5,000  kilowatts,  this 
plant  is  capable  of  carrying  the  full  Sacramento  district  load.  In 
normal  operation  a  machine  is  kept  floating  on  the  line,  using  a 
minimum  amount  of  steam,  but  with  enough  boilers  under  steam 
to  respond  instantly  to  emergency  calls.  Although  designed  as  a 
stand-by  or  auxiliary,  the  fact  that  all  the  hydro-electric  stations 
are  taxed  to  the  full  capacity  will  put  the  steam  plant  in  constant 
commission  as  a  generating  station. 

The  building  has  a  structural  steel  frame,  with  walls,  floors 
and  roof  of  reinforced  concrete.  The  building  is  L-shaped,  hav- 
ing a  total  length  of  156  feet,  width  100  feet  at  the  generation 
end,  and  71  feet  at  the  boiler  end  of  the  building.  The  boiler 
room  is  one  story  high,  the  height  to  the  roof  being  40  feet  above 
the  first  floor  level. 

The  boiler  room  is  large  and  well  lighted  and  airy.  The 
light  is  from  above  a  glass-covered  monitor  or  weather-board 
Three  batteries  composed  of  two  Sterling  boilers  each  are  in- 
stalled with  room  for  an  additional  battery.  The  boilers  are  of 
the  water  tube  type,  each  containing  600  314-inch  tubes,  three 
42-inch  drums  and  one  18-inch  mud  drum.  Each  boiler  is  rated 
at  822  horsepower.  The  high  pressure  steam  pipes  are  designed 
for  200  pounds  steam  pressure  with  125  degrees  superheat.  Each 
battery  of  boilers  supports  one  smoke  stack  7  feet  6  inches  in 
diameter,  mounted  on  breeching.  These  stacks  stand  100  feet 
above  the  floor  and  60.  feet  above  the  roof. 

The  fuel  oil  is  fed  through  Peabody  back  shot  burners,  three 
to  each  boiler.  Fuel  oil  pumps  are  of  the  Worthington  duplex 
type.  Provision  is  made  to  carry  a  full  month's  supply  of  oil 
for  fuel.  Storage  tanks  are  placed  on  the  extreme  east  end  of 
-the  property,  about  450  feet  east  of  the  building.  These  are  two 


FUEL    OIL   IN   ELECTRICITY   PRODUCTION    205 

riveted  steel  tanks,  the  capacity  of  each  being  10,000  barrels.  The 
tanks  are  about  50  feet  in  diameter  and  30  feet  high.  The  tank 
walls  and  top  are  supported  inside  by  timber  bracing  to  prevent 
the  tank  collapsing  when  empty  in  a  high  wind.  Each  tank  is 
supported  on  a  reinforced  concrete  pad  30  inches  deep  and  about 
50  feet  in  diameter.  A  reinforced  concrete  retaining  wall  12 
feet  high  and  95  feet  in  diameter  surrounds  each  tank.  This  is 
a  safety  precaution  to  hold  the  oil  in  case  of  a  fire  or  of  the  tank's 
failing.  The  capacity  of  the  concrete  retainer  is  made  equal  to 
that  of  the  tank. 

Oil  is  brought  to  the  tanks  through  8-inch  standard  screw 
piping.  Provision  is  made  for  the  delivery  of  oil  from  barges 
on  the  river  or  from  cars.  On  the  oil  wharf  there  is  an  oil  mani- 
fold with  four  6-inch  connections.  Along  the  spur  railroad  which 
runs  in  front  of  the  building  is  a  car  manifold  with  four  4-inch 
connections.  The  service  oil  is  brought  to  the  building  through 
an  8-inch  pipe  line  encased  in  sawdust  with  a  2-inch  steam  line  to 
heat  the  oil.  Just  outside  the  south  end  of  the  boiler  room  are 
two  rectangular  oil  service  tanks  of  200  barrels  capacity  each. 
These  are  encased  in  reinforced  concrete.  They  are  placed  below 
the  ground  level  and  are  accessible  through  manholes. 

Table  22  gives  an  evaporative  test  made  at  the  Redondo  plant 
of  the  Pacific  Light  and  Power  Company.  The  data  are  given 
through  the  courtesy  of  the  Hammel  Oil  Burner  Company.  The 
test  was  made  on  a  604-horsepower  Babcock  and  Wilcox  boiler 
equipped  with  Hammel  Patent  Furnace  and  Oil  Burners,  the 
boiler  being  in  regular  service  and  under  the  usual  plant  operating 
conditions. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
FUEL   OIL   IN  THE   SUGAR   INDUSTRY 

Although  sucrose  or  cane  sugar  (C12H22O11)  is  found  in 
many  plants,  its  extraction  is  often  unprofitable  because  it  is 
usually  found  in  association  with  other  substances.  Only  a  com- 
paratively small  quantity  of  the  sucrose  will  crystallize  if  dextrin, 
glucose,  "invert  sugar,"  or  dissolved  mineral  salts  are  present  in 
considerable  quantities.  Sugar  is  obtained  commercially  from 
various  sources,  the  most  important  of  which  are  sugar  cane, 
sugar  beet,  sugar  maple  and  the  date  palm.  Although  the  sorghum 
plant  contains  considerable  sugar  it  has  not  been  possible  to  obtain 
from  it  a  satisfactorily  crystallized  product,  even  after  much 
experimentation,  because  its  sugar  content  varies  and  in  addition 
it  contains  a  large  percentage  of  gums  and  dextrin.  As  a  com- 
mercial product,  in  the  peculiar  flavor  of  maple  sugar  lies  its  only 
value.  When  maple  sugar  is  refined  it  cannot  be  distinguished 
f ro-rn  ordinary  cane  sugar,  because  it  loses  the  maple  sugar  taste. 
Date  palm  sugar  is  shipped  for  refining  and  is  produced  in  India 
as  a  low-grade  crude  sugar,  where  it  is  known  as  "jaggary." 

Practically  all  commercial  sucrose  is  obtained  from  the  sugar 
cane  and  the  sugar  beet.  A  warm  and  moist  climate  is  neces- 
sary for  the  growth  of  the  sugar  cane  and  there  must  be  periods 
of  hot  and  dry  weather.  Sugar  cane  is  a  member  of  the  grass 
family  and  it  is  propagated  by  budding.  A  plant  and  several 
shoots  are  produced  from  each  bud  and  these  shoots  form  cane 
clumps.  The  height  of  the  stalks  varies ;  some  being  only  four 
or  five  feet  high,  while  some  attain  the  height  of  twenty-five  feet. 

Practically  all  of  the  supply  of  sugar  comes  from  Louisiana, 
Brazil,  the  West  Indies,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  the  Philippine 
Islands,  Java,  and  Mexico.  The  climate  suitable  for  sugar  cane 
is  not  suitable  for  sugar  beets,  which  require  a  temperate  climate. 
Germany,  France,  and  the  United  States  raise  great  quantities  of 
sugar  beets. 

In  the  growing  cane  plant,  as  is  the  case  with  many  fruits, 
it  is  not  until  the  plant  reaches  maturity  that  sucrose  is  secreted. 

206 


FUEL    OIL    IN    THE   SUGAR   INDUSTRY        207 

Ripe  sugar  cane  has  about  the  following  analysis : 

Sugar 18    % 

Fibre 9.5% 

Water    71 


FIG.    S3.     Mill    for   Crushing   Sugar   Cane. 

Other  matter 1.5% 

After  the  juice  is  squeezed  from  the  ripe  cane  its  analysis  is 
about  as  follows : 


FIG.  84.     A  Furnace  Burning  Begasse  and  Oil. 
(Courtesy  of  Babcock   &  Wilcox   Co.) 


Water    80      % 

Sucrose 18      % 

Glucose 0.30% 

Gums    .......  i ' , «. 1.40% 

Mineral  Salts 0.30% 


208  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

The  actual  yield  of  sugar,  however,  is  not  equal  to  the  an- 
alysis, because  ordinarily  16  to  20%  of  the  juice  cannot  be  ex- 
tracted from  the  waste  cane  pulp,  which  is  called  "begasse."  The 
mineral  salts  can  *be  decreased  in  the  mature  cane  if  the  soil  in 
which  it  grows  is  plentifully  limed,  because  the  lime  precipitates 
salts  deposited  by  surface  water  and  the  decomposition  of  the  soil. 
The  preparation  of  raw  sugar  from  the  cane  is  divided  into  four 
operations : 

(1)  Extraction  of  the  juice. 

(2)  Clarification  of  the  juice. 

(3)  Evaporation  of  the  juice  to  crystallization. 

(4)  Separation  of  the  crystals  from  the  liquor. 

In  the  field  the  leaves  are  stripped  from  the  cane  and  the 


FIG.    85.     A  Typical   Filter  Press. 

stripped  cane  is  taken  to  the  mill,  where  it  is  crushed  and  all  of  the 
juice  extracted  which  it  is  possible  to  squeeze  out.  A  great  deal 
of  the  sugar  is  lost  if  fermentation  begins,  and  consequently 
the  crushing  must  be  done  very  soon  after  the  cane  is  cut.  The 
crushing  mills  are  very  simple  and  are  made  up  of  two  or  three 
horizontal  rolls  having  a  diameter  of  30  to  60  inches  (see  fig.  83). 
The  axes  of  the  rolls  are  parallel  and  the  bearings  of  the  rolls  are 
adjustable.  If  the  mill  contains  three  rolls,  the  cane  passes  be- 
tween the  top  roll  and  the  first  bottom  roll  and  then  between 
the  top  and  the  second  bottom  rolls.  The  second  bottom  roll  is 
set  nearer  to  the  top  roll  than  is  the  first,  so  that  the  crushing 
is  done  in  two  stages.  The  cane  is  ordinarily  passed  through  two 
or  three  of  these  crushing  mills  and  about  sixty  to  seventy  percent 
of  the  juice  is  extracted.  In  Louisiana  shredder  machines  are 
used  which  consist  of  toothed  wheels  that  revolve  at  different 


FUEL    OIL    IN    THE    SUGAR    INDUSTRY 


209 


speeds.  The  cane  is  put  through  these  wheels  before  it  is  taken  to 
the  mills  and  is  broken  up  into  a  soft  and  pulpy  mass.  When 
cane  is  shredded  before  being  sent  to  the  mills  the  extraction  of 
the  juice  averages  a  little  over  75%  of  the  total  content  of 
the  cane.  After  the  cane  has  come  from  the  crushing  mills  it  is 
put  into  about  ten  or  twelve  percent  of  cold  or  hot  water  to  which 
milk  of  lime  has  been  added.  It  is  then  passed  through  the  crush- 
ing mill  again  and  an  increase  of  two  or  three  percent  more  juice 
is  obtained.  The  extracted  juice  runs  off  in  the  trough  and  the 
begasse  or  "trash"  is  used  for  fuel  under  the  boilers.  This  waste 
fibre  when  used  alone  as  a  fuel  requires  elaborate  and  expensive 
equipment  for  burning.  In  many  instances  begasse  is  the  sole 

TABLE  23— ANALYSES  AND  CALORIFIC  VALUES  OF  BEGASSE 


Source 

Moisture 

c 

H 

0 

N 

Ash 

B.  t.  u.  per  Ib. 
Dry  Bagasse 

Cuba  .  . 
Cuba  
Cuba  
Cuba  
Cuba  
Porto  Rico  .... 
Porto  Rico  .... 
Porto  Rico  .... 

51  50 
49  .10 
42.50 
51.61 
52.80 
41  .60 
43  .  50 
44.20 
52  10 

43.15 

43   74 
43.61 
46.80 
46.78 
44.28 
44.21 
44.92 

6  00 
6  08 
6  06 
5.34 
5.74 
6.66 
6.31 
6.27  , 

47.95 
48.61 
48.45 
46.35 
45.38 
47.10 
47.72 
46.50 

"o'.4l" 
0.41 
0.41 

2.90 

.57 
.88 
.51 
10 
.35 
.35 
.90 
2  27 

7985 
8300 
8240 

'8359 
8386 
8380 
8230 

Louisiana  
Louisiana  . 

54.00 
51.80 

8370 
8371 

Java  

46.03 

6.56 

45.55 

0.18 

1.68 

8681 

fuel  used,  but  in  the  more  modern  plants  fuel  oil  is  used  to  supply 
the  necessary  additional  heat  units.  Table  23  gives  the  analyses 
and  calorific  values  of  begasse.a 

In  Hawaii,  where  there  are  modern  furnace  installations  only 
1J/2  to  2  gallons  of  oil  are  required  per  ton  of  cane  treated,  but 
the  plants  in  Mexico  and  Louisiana  which  have  not  this  modern 
equipment,  use  as  much  as  10  gallons  of  oil  per  ton  of  cane 
treated.  The  average  horsepower  required  for  each  ton  of  cane 
handled  per  twenty-four  hours  is  \y2.  This  means  that  a  plant 
handling  2,000  tons  of  cane  in  twenty-four  hours  requires  3,000 
boiler  horsepower.  The  begasse,  owing  to  the  condition  in  which 
it  comes  from  the  mills,  supplies  only  two-thirds  of  the  heat  units 
required,  and  fuel  oil  supplies  the  additional  horsepower. 

A  special  design  of  furnace  for  burning  fuel  oil  in  conjunc- 
tion with  begasse  is  not  necessary,  because  the  oil  burner  can  be 
inserted  above  the  fire  doors  through  a  hole  in  the  boiler  front. 


a.  Steam,   Its   Generation   and  Use,   Babcock  &  Wilcox   Co.,  p.   206. 


210 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


The  burner  can  be  pointed  so  that  its  flame  passes  through  the 
flame  from  the  begasse.  The  oil  flame  will  form  carbon  if  it  is 
cooled  by  coming  in  direct  contact  with  the  begasse.  A  very 
satisfactory  method  of  installing  auxiliary  oil  burners  is  to  place 
them  at  the  rear  of  the  furnace  so  that  the  flame  passes  towards 
the  front.  Before  the  introduction  of  fuel  oil  the  additional  heat 
units  necessary  were  supplied  by  coal,  but  fuel  oil  used  in  con- 
junction with  begasse  shows  an  increase  of  about  20.8  percent 
of  boiler  horsepower  over  that  obtained  by  the  use  of  coal  and 
begasse.  Fig.  84  shows  a  furnace  for  oil  and  begasse. 

When  the  juice  comes  from  the  mills  it  contains  small  pieces 
of  cane  and  these  are  removed  by  straining  the  juice  through  wire 
screens.  In  addition  to  the  pieces  of  cane  the  juice  also  contains 


FIG.    86.     A    Centrifugal    Separator. 

organic  acid,  nitrogenous  bodies,  and  invert  sugar  in  solution. 
These  are  all  very  susceptible  to  fermentation  and  must  be  re- 
moved. The  process  of  removal  is  called  "defecation."  The 
juice  is  passed  through  a  heater  which  is  placed  in  the  vapor  pipe 
of  the  vacuum  pan  and  thence  into  the  defecator  tanks,  heated  by 
steam  coils.  In  these  tanks  milk  of  lime  is  added  for  neutralizing 
the  acids.  After  neutralization,  the  juice  is  left  slightly  acid  and 


FUEL    OIL   IN    THE   SUGAR   INDUSTRY        211 

turns  litmus  paper  red.  Another  function  of  the  lime  and  of  the 
heat  is  to  coagulate  the  albumin  and  a  portion  of  the  gums.  The 
juice  is  rapidly  boiled  and  the  coagulated  material  rises  to  the  top. 
The  scum,  consisting  of  lime  salts  which  hold  all  the  impurities 
entangled  in  it,  is  usually  about  2  inches  thick.  The  scum  is  al- 
lowed to  stand  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour  when  it  begins 
to  crack.  At  this  point  the  scum  is  either  skimmed  off  or  else 
the  juice  is  drawn  off  beneath  it.  The  scum  is  run  into  tanks 
where  it  is  mixed  with  more  lime  and  sawdust.  The  purpose  of 
the  sawdust  is  to  make  the  cake  more  porous  in  the  subsequent 
filter-pressing.  The  juice  obtained  from  the  filter-press  (see 
fig.  85)  is  run  into  the  juice  from  the  defecators  and  the  entire 
quantity  of  juice  is  now  ready  for  evaporation.  On  the  successful 
work  of  defecation  depends  the  amount  and  the  quality  of  the 
sugar  produced. 

In  all  modern  sugar  houses  enormous  pans  are  used  for 
evaporation.  The  juice  is  generally  concentrated  three  times, 
after  which  the  solution  will  contain  about  fifty  percent  of  solids, 
at  which  point  crystallization  begins.  The  liquor  is  then  trans- 
ferred to  a  simple  vacuum  pan  called  the  "strike"  pan,  where  the 
evaporation  is  continued  slowly  under  a  high  vacuum  with  the 
object  of  building  up  the  crystals  on  the  crystal  points. 

When  the  crystals  have  reached  the  desired  size  in  the 
"strike"'  pan,  the  mixture  of  crystals  and  syrup  is  run  into  storage 
tanks  where  it  is  slightly  cooled.  From  these  tanks  it  is  run  into 
centrifugal  separators  (see  fig.  86),  where  the  molasses  is  sepa- 
rated from  the  sugar.  The  sugar  obtained  in  the  centrifugal  ma- 
chine is  called  the  "first  suear"  and  is  at  once  packed  for  ship- 
ment. The  first  sugars,  if  thev  are  of  srood  quality,  contain  95  to 
97  percent  pure  suear  and  are  lieht  colored.  The  molasses  sepa- 
rated from  the  first  sugar  is  called  "first  molasses,"  which  con- 
tains about  50  percent  of  sucrose.  The  molasses  is  diluted  and 
again  defecated  with  lime  and  the  clarified  syrup  thus  obtained 
is  again  boiled  in  the  vacuum  pans  yielding  a  "second  sugar." 
The  second  sugar  crystallizes  slowly  and  it  is  necessary  for  the 
concentrated  syrup  to  stand  from  three  to  seven  days  in  a  room 
kept  at  a  temperature  of  sixty  degrees  C.  until  crystallization  is 
completed.  The  mass  is  then  put  through  the  centrifugal  sep- 
arator and  yields  a  "second"  or  "molasses  sugar"  and  second 
molasses.  The  sugar  thus  obtained  is  not  uniform  in  quality 
and  can  either  be  shipped  for  what  it  will  bring  on  the  market 


212 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


or  it  can  be  dissolved  in  water  and  the  resulting  syrup  added  to 
the  juice  going  to  the  vacuum  pan. 

It  does  not  pay  to  attempt  to  recover  the  forty  percent  of 
sugar  contained  in  the  second  molasses,  although  it  is  sometimes 
fermented  to  make  rum  or  alcohol.  It  also  has  a  fuel  value  and 
is  often  injected  into  the  furnace  in  a  fine  stream.  The  second 
molasses  is  not  suitable  for  table  use  or  for  cooking  purposes. 

From  whatever  source  raw  sugar  is  derived  it  is  always  more 
or  less  colored  and  impure.  To  obtain  pure  white  sugar  the  raw 
sugar  must  be  refined.  Refining  is  not  usually  done  in  the  same 
countries  that  produce  the  raw  sugar.  Sugar  refining  is  a  simpler 


FIG.    87.     Type    of   Char-Filter. 

process  than  the  preparation  of  the  raw  sugar,  but  much  ex- 
pensive machinery  and  careful  attention  to  detail  are  necessary. 
The  process  consists  in  dissolving  the  crude  sugar,  separating 
the  impurities  from  it,  and  re-crystallizing  it.  Refineries  usually 
have  the  melting  tanks  on  the  ground  floor.  Ordinarily  each  tank 
has  a  capacity  of  16,000  Ibs.  of  sugar,  to  which  water  is  added 
to  form  a  syrup  of  1.25  specific  gravity.  This  syrup  contains 
about  55  percent  of  solids.  The  melter  which  contains  an  efficient 
mixer  or  stirring  apparatus  has  a  false  bottom  which  retains  the 
coarse  impurities  such  as  straw,  pieces  of  cane,  leaves,  sticks  and 
stones.  Heat  is  supplied  to  the  melter  by  closed  steam  coils. 
The  melter  is  filled  about  one-third  full  of  water  at  a  temperature 
of  170°  F.,  after  which  the  stirrer  is  put  in  motion  and  the  first 


FUEL    OIL    IN    THE   SUGAR   INDUSTRY 


213 


charge  of  sugar  is  dumped  in.  The  sugar  dissolves  in  about  15 
minutes  and  the  liquor,  which  now  is  a  light  straw  to  dark  brown 
color  is  pumped  directly  to  the  ublow-ups."  The  blow-ups  are 
defecators  which  hold  about  16,000  Ibs.  of  sugar.  These  defec- 
ators are  also  heated  by  closed  steam  coils,  but  each  defecator 
also  has  a  perforated  coil  through  which  air  is  forced  for  the  pur- 
pose of  agitating  the  liquid.  For  centrifugal  sugars  the  tempera- 
lure  is  kept  at  160°  F.,  but  more  heat  is  necessary  for  lower 
grades  of  sugar.  This  defecation  removes  any  fine  suspended 
dirt,  gums,  organic  acids  and  impurities. 

The  temperature  is  now  raised  to  boiling  and  the  air  blast  is 
turned  on  for  about  20  to  30  minutes.    When  deep  cracks  appear 


Oil-Driven   Tractor   Pulling  Plows   on   Sugar   Estate. 
(Courtesy  of  Sinclair's  Magazine.) 

in  the  scum,  the  liquor  is  poured  off  and  passed  into  bag  filters. 
The  liquid  from  these  filters  must  be  perfectly  clear  if  the  sugar 
is  to  be  white. 

The  bag  filter  is  a  long  narrow  bag  of  twilled  cotton  which 
is  supported  by  an  outside  cover  of  coarse,  strong  netting, 
which  can  sustain  a  considerable  weight.  These  bags  are  often 
five  to  six  feet  long  and  eight  inches  in  diameter.  The  bags  are 
suspended  in  a  closed  room  which  is  about  12x6x8  feet.  The 
room  contains  an  open  steam  coil  which  heats  the  bags  to  180°  F. 
before  the  liquor  is  allowed  to  run  into  them.  First  runnings  are 
always  re-filtered  because  they  are  muddy.  When  the  liquor  runs 
clear  it  is  collected  in  tanks  which  are  placed  above  the  char- 


214  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

filters.  It  is  customary  to  allow  the  filtration  to  continue  for 
about  24  hours  because  the  bags  become  clogged  with  slimy  mud 
making  the  filtration  very  slow.  At  the  end  of  24  hours  the  bags 
are  flushed  with  pure  water,  which  is  drawn  out  by  a  suction  pipe 
and  returned  to  the  defecators.  The  bags  are  then  flushed  with 
hot  water  until  the  liquor  draining  from  them  contains  only  two 
percent  of  solids.  In  order  to  get  rid  of  the  soft  mud  the  bags 
are  then  turned  inside  out  in  a  tank  of  hot  water  and  are  thor- 
oughly washed  and  dried.  The  mud  which  is  washed  from  the 
bags  contains  about  20  percent  sugar  and  is  sent  to  special  tanks 
where  the  liquid  is  made  strongly  alkaline  by  lime  and  is  then 
filter-pressed.  The  clear  liquor  from  the  filter-press  is  used  to 
flush  the  bag  filters  and  to  mix  with  the  melting  water  for  raw 
sugar.  The  straw  colored  liquor  contained  in  the  tanks  above 
the  char-filter  is  now  passed  through  the  char-filter.  The  char- 
filter  is  shown  in  fig.  87.  These  filters  are  about  24  feet  deep  and 
8  feet  in  diameter  and  contain  bone-char  in  grains  passing  a  No. 
16  sieve  and  remaining  on  the  No.  30  sieve.  About  one  pound  of 
bone-char  is  used  for  each  pound  of  sugar  melted.  Because  the 
filter  becomes  clogged  at  times,  it  is  often  necessary  to  use  com- 
pressed air  to  force  the  liquor  through  the  char.  The  filtered 
liquor  from  the  char-filter  is  now  delivered  to  copper  vacuum 
pans,  which  are  about  12  feet  high  and  10  feet  in  diameter.  Each 
pan  is  connected  with  a  condenser  by  a  goose-neck.  For  granu- 
lated sugar  the  boiling  is  carried  on  at  about  160°  F.,  and  is  con- 
tinued until  grains  appear,  at  which  time  some  syrup  is  added 
slowly  until  the  crystals  have  reached  the  desired  size.  When  the 
crystals  are  large  enough,  air  is  slowly  admitted  to  the  vacuum 
pan  and  the  vacuum  pumps  are  started.  The  magma  of  sugar 
and  syrup  is  drawn  off  through  the  bottom  valve  into  coolers  or 
mixers,  which  are  directly  beneath  the  vacuum  pans.  In  order  to 
prevent  the  grains  from  growing  again  into  a  mass,  the  magma 
is  stirred  while  cooling.  The  sugar  and  the  syrup  are  now  sepa- 
rated in  centrifugal  machines.  In  the  separator  the  sugar  is 
washed  for  the  purpose  of  removing  any  adhering  syrup  and  it  is 
then  dropped  into  a  storage  bin,  from  which  it  is  carried  by  a 
belt  conveyor  to  the  granulator.  The  granulator  is  heated  by 
steam  and  is  a  long  iron  cylinder  set  at  a  slight  incline.  The  cylin- 
der is  made  to  rotate  slowly  which  prevents  the  grains  of  sugar 
from  sticking  together.  During  its  passage  through  the  granu- 


FUEL  OIL  IN  THE  SUGAR  INDUSTRY  215 

lator  the  sugar  is  thoroughly  dried  and  is  then  conveyed  to  a 
series  of  sieve  reels,  where  it  is  separated  into  three  or  four  sizes. 
In  addition  to  its  use  in  furnaces  in  the  preparation  of  raw 
sugar,  fuel  oil  is  also  often  used  under  boilers  at  the  refineries.  A 
more  recent  development  has  made  it  adaptable  to  the  preparation 
of  ground  for  the  planting  of  sugar  cane  and  for  the  transporta- 
tion of  the  cane  to  the  mills.  In  order  to  prepare  sugar  land  for 
the  crop  it  must  be  plowed,  cross-plowed,  harrowed,  rolled,  and 
furrowed.  Before  tractors  using  fuel  oil  were  employed  many 
mule-teams  and  much  labor  were  necessary.  With  the  introduc- 
tion of  oil-driven  tractors  the  work  is  performed  at  less  than 
one-third  the  former  cost.  Figure  88  shows  an  oil-driven  tractor 
drawing  plows  on  one  of  the  sugar  estates  in  the  Philippine 
Islands. 


CHAPTER  XV 
FUEL  OIL  IN  THE  GLASS  INDUSTRY 

Glass  beads  have  been  found  in  early  Egyptian  mummy  cases 
which  are  at  least  3,000  years  old.  The  glass  industry  also  flour- 
ished in  Rome,  but  in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  Venice 
became  the  center  of  the  industry  and  later  Bohemia  took  the 
lead  in  glass  manufacturing. 

The  necessary  materials  for  making  glass  are  silica,  some 
alkali,  and  lime  or  lead.  Glass  is  known  in  commerce  under  va- 
rious names,  but  it  is  always  a  mixture  of  silicates.  The  silica 
was  formerly  derived  from  quartz  or  flint,  but  on  account  of  the 
expense  of  preparation  of  these  raw  materials,  quartz  sand  and 
soft  quartzites  are  now  used  except  for  glass  of  a  very  fine  qual- 
ity. Alkali  is  derived  from  the  carbonate  or  sulphate  of  soda  or 
potash. 

The  first  process  in  glass  manufacture  is  grinding  the  raw 
materials  and  thoroughly  mixing  them.  In  some  instances  to 
insure  perfect  mixing  the  batch  is  reground.  When  a  thorough 
mixture  is  assured  the  batch  is  shoveled  into  the  furnace  together 
with  a  certain  amount  of  broken  glass  called  ucullet,"  which  melts 
at  a  very  low  temperature  and  assists  in  starting  the  fusion  of  the 
ground  raw  materials.  Care  must  be  taken  that  iron  is  present  in 
only  minute  quantity,  because  it  turns  the  glass  a  dark  green. 
Where  color  is  no  objection  as  in  common  bottle  glass  and  other 
cheap  grades,  a  larger  amount  of  blast  furnace  slag  can  be  used. 

The  fuel  for  glass  making  should  yield  a  long  flame  without 
smoke  or  soot.  Furthermore,  delicate  heat  control  is  essential. 
With  the  use  of  fuel  oil  the  losses  sustained  by  reason  of  varying 
and  unreliable  temperatures  have  been  materially  reduced.  The 
discovery  of  natural  gas  had  a  great  influence  on  the  glass  in- 
dustry and  most  of  the  largest  plants  are  located  in  and  around 
Pittsburgh,  because  it  was  the  center  of  the  gas  territory.  Fuel 
oil  is  now  most  generally  used  in  glass  making.  In  the  burners 
used  in  glass  making  only  high  pressure  should  be  used  for  atom- 
izing the  oil. 

There  are  several  forms  of  glass  furnaces.  The  common  pot 
furnace  has  a  central  opening  through  which  the- flame  and  hot 

216 


FUEL   OIL   IN   THE   GLASS   INDUSTRY 


217 


gases  come  up  from  the  grate  which  is  below  the  hearth.  The 
pots  are  placed  in  a  circle  around  this  opening  and  the  flame  is 
deflected  down  to  the  pots  by  a  flat  arch  roof.  Pots  for  glass 
making  must  be  made  of  only  the  best  material,  and  must  be  very 


FIG.  89.     Typical  Closed  Pot. 
(From  Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry,  Thorp.) 

carefully  constructed.  There  are  two  kinds  of  glass  pots,  open 
and  closed.  Open  pots  are  usually  slightly  greater  in  diameter 
at  the  top  than  on  the  bottom.  The  diameter  of  the  top  is  from 
three  to  five  feet  and  the  pots  are  usually  three  to  five  feet  deep. 
They  give  a  quick  melt,  but  are  expensive  and  fragile.  The  dimen- 
sions of  closed  pots  (see  fig.  89)  are:  Length,  5  feet;  width, 


FIG.   90.     Regenerative  Furnace. 
(From    Outlines    of    Industrial    Chemistry,    Thorp.) 

* 

Zl/2  feet;  height,  4  feet.  Through  the  construction  of  the  neck 
built  into  the  wall  of  the  furnace  neither  fire  gases  nor  flame  can 
come  in  contact  with  the  glass.  Closed  pots  are  always  used  for 
lead  glass.  Before  putting  pots  in  the  glass  furnace  they  are 
heated  in  a  special  furnace  with  a  slow  rise  of  temperature.  The 
life  of  pots  is  very  uncertain,  but  sometimes  they  last  for  months. 


218 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


The  regenerative  type  of  furnace  shown  in  fig.  90  has  the  air 
for  combustion  passing  through  one  flue  in  the  combustion  cham- 


FIG.  91.     Glass  Tank  Holding  6^   Tons  Equipped  with   Oil  Burners. 
(Courtesy    of   Anglo-Mexican   Petroleum    Products    Co.,    Ltd.) 

ber  then  through  the  furnace  and  down  the  other  flue.    The  intake 
chamber  heats  the  incoming  air  and  the  escaping  gases  heat  the 


FUEL   OIL   IN   THE   GLASS   INDUSTRY 


219 


lining  of  the  exhaust  chamber  which  is  made  of  checker- work 
brick.  At  twenty-minute  intervals  the  air  current  is  reversed  and 
so  the  intake  air  is  always  well  heated.  The  oil  burner  at  one  of 
these  furnaces  used  compressed  air  for  atomizing  the  oil  at  40 
pounds  pressure  and  140°  F.  The  walls  of  this  type  of  furnace 
would  crack  with  uneven  expansion  and  it  requires  approximately 
three  weeks  to  bring  the  furnace  up  to  its  proper  working  tem- 


FIG.    92.     Blowing   Window    Glass. 
(Courtesy  of  Tide  Water  Oil  Co.) 

perature.  This  furnace  can. also  be  used  as  a  tank  furnace  when 
a  large  quantity  of  one  kind  of  glass  is  to  be  made.  A  large  deep 
tank  replaces  the  pots.  At  one  end  of  the  tank  the  raw  materials 
are  continually  introduced  and  from  the  other  end  the  glass  is 
constantly  withdrawn.  Fig.  91  shows  an  oil-burning  glass  tank 
holding  6l/2  tons. 

When  the  raw  materials  have  become  melted  and  the  gases 


220 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


formed  by  fusion  have  escaped  in  bubbles  and  the  melt  has  come 
to  a  state  of  high  fusion,  the  liquid  glass  is  allowed  to  stand  at  a 
raised  temperature.  The  object  of  this  is  to  free  the  glass  en- 
tirely from  bubbles  and  this  part  of  the  process  is  called  refining. 
When  allowed  to  cool  after  having  been  fused,  the  glass  first  be- 
comes pasty  and  then  rigid.  Without  passing  through  this  pasty 
stage,  glass  blowing  would  be  impossible,  and  only  cut  or  molded 


FIG.   93.     Glory   Hole   Furnace. 
(Courtesy   of   Tate-Jones   &    Co.,    Inc.) 

ware  could  be  manufactured.  As  a  rule,  the  higher  the  percent- 
age of  silica  the  more  difficult  the  glass  is  to  fuse  and  the  harder 
and  more  brittle  it  becomes. 

In  the  manufacture  of  plate  glass  the  melted  glass  is  poured 
on  a  table  made  of  thick,  narrow  segments  of  cast  iron,  bolted' 
together  and  planed  on  top.  To  smooth  the  surface  of  the  glass 
and  to  give  the  plate  uniform  thickness,  a  heavy  iron  roller  is 
passed  over  the  pasty  mass.  As  soon  as  the  plate  is  rolled,  it  is 


FUEL   OIL  IN   THE   GLASS  INDUSTRY         221 

transferred  to  a  furnace  which  is  directly  in  front  of  the  table 
and  which  has  been  heated  to  the  temperature  of  the  glass.  This 
is  called  the  annealing  oven.  When  the  plate  has  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  annealing  oven  it  is  closed  and  the  burners  are  ex- 
tinguished and  the  plate  is  allowed  to  cool  for  a  number  of  days 
very  slowly.  Upon  again  removing  from  the  annealing  oven,  the 
plate  is  uneven  and  rough.  It  is  placed  en  a  table  and  heavy  cast 
iron  rubbers  slide  over  its  surface  with  a  whirling  motion  while 
water  and  coarse  sand  are  sprinkled  on  it.  About  half  the  thick- 
ness of  the  plate  is  cut  away  during  grinding  and  polishing. 

Window  glass  is  always  blown.  After  the  refining,  the  glass 
is  allowed  to  become  pasty  and  then  the  blower  begins  his  work, 
as  shown  in  fig.  92.  The  pipe  of  the  glass  blower  is  a  straight 
piece  of  iron  tubing  4  or  5  feet  long.  A  lump  gathers  on  the  end 
of  the  pipe  and  by  blowing  through  it  while  whirling  it  between 
the  hands,  the  blower  forms  a  hollow  globe  of  glass.  The  hollow 
globe  is  again  heated  in  the  furnace  called  the  glory  hole  ( see  fig. 
93)  and  when  soft  is  rolled  on  a  flat  surface  and  then  swung  in 
a  vertical  circle.  In  order  to  allow  room  for  vertical  swinging, 
the  blower  stands  on  a  plank  or  bridge  placed  across  a  deep  pit. 
While  swinging,  the  blower  occasionally  blows  through  the  pipe 
until  the  globe  becomes  a  hollow  cylinder  closed  at  ©ne  end  and 
opening  into  the  pipe  at  the  other.  The  closed  end  of  the  cylinder 
is  re-heated  until  soft  and  then  blows  out.  A  hollow  cylinder 
open  at  both  ends  is  thus  formed  and  with  a  diamond  is  cut 
lengthwise  and  put  into  the  flattening  furnace  which  maintains  a 
temperature  sufficient  to  soften  the  glass.  The  cylinder  slowly 
opens  and  spreads  out  on  the  floor  of  the  furnace  in  a  flat  sheet. 

The  regenerative  tank  furnace  is  particularly  adapted  to  the 
manufacture  of  bottle  glass.a  A  typical  furnace  of  this  kind  may 
be  75  feet  long,  16  feet  wide,  and  the  depth  to  the  level  of  the  door 
may  be  5  feet.  As  the  glass  comes  from  the  doors  it  is  taken  by 
the  bottle  machine  and  made  into  bottles  which  are  then  passed 
through  the  annealing  furnace.  They  are  carried  by  an  endless 
chain  gear  into  the  furnace  to  a  revolving  table  and  are  conveyed 
into  the  hottest  part  of  the  furnace,  which  is  usually  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  100°  F.  At  this  degree  the  bottles  come  in  direct 
contact  with  the  flame  and  then  pass  out  the  door  by  another 
endless  chain  gear.  The  entire  operation  requires  about  36  hours. 

a.  Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry,  Thorp. 


222  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

Bottle  glass  is  melted  and  refined  in  this  tank  furnace  at  a  con- 
sumption of  140  gallons  of  oil  per  ton  of  glass. 

Fuel  oil  is  very  generally  used  now  by  the  large  glass  fac- 
tories because  the  flame  can  come  in  direct  contact  with  the  glass 
without  producing  any  discolorization  or  injuring  the  glass  in  any 
way.  In  addition,  the  temperature  control  is  perfect  and  many 
articles  that  were  formerly  ruined  by  fluctuations  in  temperature 
can  now  go  through  the  process  without  injury,  due  to  the  main- 
tenance of  an  absolutely  uniform  temperature. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

FUEL  OIL  IN  CERAMIC  INDUSTRIES 

In  the  manufacture  of  clay  products  any  fuel  which  causes 
discoloration  by  uneven  heating,  soot  or  smoke,  is  undesirable 
and  unprofitable.  Coal  is  out  of  the  running  in  the  manufacture 
of  ceramic  products,  such  as  vases  and  dishes,  and  oil  is  the 
preferable  fuel  even  in  manufacturing  enameled,  vitrified,  fire  and 
common  brick. 

Many  enamel  ware  manufacturers  use  the  muffle  kim.  When- 
ever it  is  necessary  to  treat  the  ware  with  two  or  more  coats  of 
enamel,  it  is  necessary  to  apply  all  but  the  first  coat  at  a  higher 
temperature.  In  burning  common  brick  about  five  days  are  re- 
quired to  water  smoke  and  burn  and  35  to  50  gallons  of  crude  oil 
per  thousand  bricks  are  required.  A  longer  time,  higher  tempera- 
ture and  greater  consumption  of  oil  per  thousand  bricks  are  neces- 
sary in  the  burning  of  fire  bricks,  but  the  process  is  similar  to 
that  used  for  common  brick. 

In  burning  brick  with  oil  the  amount  of  fuel  required  varies 
with  the  quality  of  clay  or  shale  used.  One  large  plant  in  Kansas 
is  burning  brick  using  100  gallons  of  oil  per  1,000  brick.  This 
includes  fuel  for  running  their  boilers  to  operate  the  plant.  The 
presence  of  carbon  in  clay  is  always  a  serious  problem  where 
coal  is  the  fuel,  because  in  case  the  carbon  is  ignited  and  burns 
freely,  the  fires  in  the  furnace  have  to  be  drawn,  all  air  supply 
shut  off  and  the  carbon  allowed  to  smolder  until  completely 
burned  out.  In  pulling  a  coal  fire,  the  doors  must  be  open  and 
an  excess  of  air  rushes  into  the  kiln  before  it  can  be  daubed,  not 
only  checking  the  ware  but  supplying  large  quantities  of  oxygen 
for  combustion  of  the  carbon  in  the  clay  which  might  overburn  the 
entire  kiln.  An  oil  fire  does  away  with  these  dangers.  It  can  be 
instantly  turned  off  or  turned  down  and  the  air  inlets  closed  with- 
out loss  of  fuel  or  danger  to  kilns.  Fig.  94  shows  an  oil-burning 
brick  kiln  of  a  capacity  of  500,000  brick. 

Limestone  as  quarried  is  calcium  carbonate,  and  its  com- 
position expressed  chemically  is  CaCo3.  To  make  quicklime, 
which  is  CaO,  it  is  necessary  that  the  carbon  dioxide,  CO2,  be 
driven  off  by  heat.  Carbon  dioxide  begins  to  come  off  at  a  tem- 

223 


224 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


perature  of  about  750  degrees  F.,  but  a  temperature  of  over  1,300 
degrees  is  required  to  completely  reduce  the  stone  to  calcium 
oxide.  There  are  always  some  impurities  present  in  the  original 
limestone  and  the  actual  yield  of  quicklime  varies  from  30  to  55 
percent  of  the  limestone.  The  different  quarries  produce  lime- 
stone of  different  densities  and  consequently  the  difficulty  of  re- 
ducing the  stone  to  quicklime  varies.  The  dense  and  compact 
stones  yield  the  best  quality  of  lime. 

The  old  method  of  burning  lime  in  the  "periodic"  kilns  is 
wasteful  of  fuel  and  time.    This  type  of  kiln  is  shown  in  fig.  95. 


A 


FIG.   94.     An   Oil-Burning  Brick  Kiln. 
•   (Courtesy   of   W.   N.    Best,   Inc.) 

The  kiln  is  made  of  large  blocks  of  limestone  or  of  brick.  Two 
or  three  feet  from  the  ground  an  arch  (A)  of  large  blocks  of 
limestone  is  turned.  The  fire  is  built  under  the  arch  and  the  lime- 
stone is  piled  on  top  of  the  arch,  the  lumps  varying  in  size  from 
that  of  a  cocoanut  just  above  the  arch  to  that  of  a  goose  egg  at 
the  top  of  the  kiln.  After  the  fire  is  started,  the  temperature  is 
raised  very  slowly  for  six  or  eight  hours  to  prevent  the  limestone 
arch  from  crumbling.  After  this  interval  the  temperature  is  kept 
at  a  full  red  heat  for  two  days  or  more  when  the  fire  is  allowed 
to  burn  out  and  the  kiln  cools.  During  the  time  of  cooling,  dis- 
charging and  recharging,  the  kiln  is  idle  and  much  time  is  lost. 
Moreover  a  large  amount  of  fuel  is  wasted  in  heating  the  walls 
of  the  kiln  after  each  recharging. 


FUEL    OIL   IN   THE    CERAMIC   INDUSTRY      225 


When  fuel  oil  is  used  in  burning  lime  all  the  disadvantages  of 
the  periodic  kiln  are  eliminated  because  the  production  is  con- 
tinuous. Furthermore,  oil  burned  lime  commands  a  ready  market 
because  of  its  greater  cleanliness.  There  are  two  types  of  kiln 


FIG.  95.     A  Periodic  Lime  Kiln. 

which  have  proven  remarkably  successful  with  fuel  oil.  One,  the 
"continuous"  kiln,  is  vertical  and  this  kiln  should  be  charged  with 
lumps  of  stone  about  the  size  of  a  man's  head.  If  the  temperature 
is  too  low  or  the  lumps  too  large,  the  stone  will  not  be  calcined  to 
the  center  and  the  lumps  will  not  slake.  At  the  burning  zone  the 
width  of  the  kiln  should  not  exceed  eight  feet,  because  with  a 


FIG.  96.     Oil-Burning  Rotary  Cement  Kiln. 
(Courtesy   of   W.   N.    Best,    Inc.) 

greater  width  the  heat  may  not  penetrate  to  the  center  of  the 
charge.  The  combustion  chamber  should  be  large  enough  to 
allow  combustion  to  take  place  before  the  oil  enters  the  kiln,  thus 
insuring  a  soft,  long  flame  and  permitting  the  gases  to  pass  readily 
to  the  center  of  the  kiki.  A  low  pressure  air  burner  is  preferable 


226  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

for  this  purpose  and  it  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  thoroughly 
atomize  the  oil.  Air  should  be  admitted  around  the  burner,  giving 
complete  combustion  by  passing  through  the  flame. 

The  second  type  is  called  the  "rotary"  kiln,  shown  in  figs.  96 
and  97.  This  type  had  been  universally  adopted  for  the  burning 
of  Portland  cement,  and  its  proven  efficiency  showed  its  adapt- 
ability to  lime  burning  when  the  lime  is  to  be  ground  and  hydrated. 
The  lime  produced  in  the  rotary  kiln  is  broken  into  fine  pieces  and 
consequently  is  not  desirable  for  building  lime.  The  size  of  the 
rotary  kiln  for  lime  burning  is  regulated  to  a  great  extent  by  the 
desired  capacity,  and  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
proper  diameter  and  length  to  secure  the  most  economical  results. 
The  idea  of  the  rotary  kiln  was  first  conceived  by  Crampton  in 
1877,  but  no  practical  application  was  made  till  Ransom  patented 
his  design  in  England  in  1885.  The  rotary  kiln  is  really  nothing 
more  than  a  plain  cylindrical  tube  supported  by  four  or  five  sets 
of  heavy  roller  bearings  and  driven  by  a  train  of  gear  wheels  The 
revolving  speed  is  controlled  by  regulators  and  is  from  1  to  2l/2 
R.  P.  M.,  depending  upon  the  material  to  be  burned.  The  tube  is 
inclined  towards  the  discharge  end  at  an  inclination  of  one  to 
twenty-five.  The  rotation  of  the  cylinder  by  reason  of  its  in- 
clination slowly  advances  the  material  toward  and  out  of  the 
lower  end.  The  most  popular  sizes  of  rotary  kilns  for  the  larger 
plants  are  7  to  7^2  feet  in  diameter  by  100  to  125  feet  in  length. 

The  great  Air  Nitrates  plant  at  Muscle  Shoals,  Alabama, 
built  by  the  government,  has  8  by  125  ft.  rotary  kilns  for  burning 
the  lime  used  in  the  electric  furnaces  in  the  first  step  of  the 
process.  Repairs  are  very  low  in  the  moving  parts  of  a  rotary 
kiln  and  its  life  is  about  20  years. 

The  disposal  of  the  large  quantities  of  lime  sludge  that  are 
daily  produced  in  the  causticizing  operation  by  those  pulp  mills 
using  the  soda  or  the  sulphate  process  and  by  the  alkali  works, 
has  long  been  a  serious  problem.  The  lime  has  so  much  actual 
value  that  it  should  not  be  thrown  away.  The  price  paid  for  lime 
probably  averages  $4  per  ton  f .  o.  b.  plant,  and  the  cost  of  dispos- 
ing of  the  waste  sludge  is  at  least  25c  per  ton.  This  means  that 
the  waste  sludge  has  a  value  of  $4.25  per  ton  if  burned  back  to 
lime.  About  1900  the  western  beet  sugar  plants  began  to  use 
the  rotary  kiln  for  re-burning  their  spent  lime.  The  results  have 
been  perfectly  satisfactory  and  today  such  installations  are  com- 
mon. Lime  sludge  can  be  re-burned  far  more  cheaply  than  new 


FUEL    OIL   IN   THE    CERAMIC   INDUSTRY      227 

lime  can  be  bought.  It  is,  of  course,  impossible  to  re-burn  the 
same  lime  indefinitely,  as  it  gradually  becomes  contaminated  from 
constant  use,  mainly  from  the  linings  of  the  kilns.  The  custom- 
ary practice  is  to  introduce  a  certain  quantity  of  new  lime  into 
the  circuit  periodically.  This  usually  amounts  to  about  15%  of 
the  lime  used.  The  quality  of  the  recovered  lime  depends  to  a 
great  extent  on  the  quality  of  the  original  stone  from  which  it 
was  produced. 

Portland  cement  is  manufactured  from  a  mixture  of  ma- 
terials containing  lime  and  silica  in  definite  proportions.  The 
raw  materials  are  usually  limestone  in  some  form  and  clay  or 


FIG.  97.     Oil-Burning  Rotary   Cement   Kiln. 

shale.  The  materials  are  pulverized  raw  and  mixed  either  in  the 
form  of  a  dry  powder  or  in  a  wet  condition  and  are  then  delivered 
to  the  rotary  kiln  in  which  the  required  chemical  changes  take 
place.  The  temperatures  required  for  burning  cement  clinker  are 
from  2,800  to  3,000  degrees  F.  To  withstand  these  high  tempera- 
tures a  lining  having  high  refractory  qualities  must  be  employed. 
It  must  also  have  the  quality  of  withstanding  decomposition  by 
the  chemical  action  taking  place  within  the  kiln. 

During  the  passage  of  the  mixed  material  through  the  kiln 
there  are  two  stages  of  physical  and  chemical  changes.  Water 
and  carbon  dioxide  are  driven  of?  at  an  average  temperature  of 


228  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

1,800  degrees  F.  in  the  first  stage  and  in  the  second  the  burned 
mass  is  fused  to  clinker  at  high  temperatures. 

The  rotary  kilns  used  in  cement  plants  vary  in  dimensions, 
but  the  tendency  is  toward  greater  length  and  diameter.  In  1890 
they  were  about  4  feet  in  external  diameter  and  40  feet  long. 
At  present  they  are  8  to  12  feet  in  diameter  and  200  to  275  feet 
long.  The  economy  of  the  kiln  has  been  greatly  increased  by 
increasing  its  length  and  this  is  in  .part  due  to  the  carbon  dioxide 
being  driven  off  from  the  materials  before  they  reach  the  com- 
bustion zone  in  the  kiln  and  in  part  to  the  reduction  of  heat  losses. 
With  long  kilns  the  average  amount  of  oil  required  to  burn  one 
barrel  of  cement  is  11  gallons. 

In  handling  oil  for  fuel  it  is  necessary  to  provide  storage 
tanks  of  sufficient  capacity  to  keep  the  plant  running  for  a  rea- 
sonable period  of  car  blockade  or  other  possible  failure  of  the 
source  of  supply.  They  must  also  be  erected  far  enough  from 
the  rest  of  the  plant  to  avoid  fire  hazard  and  yet  sufficiently  near 
to  eliminate  long  pipe  lines.  For  unloading  from  tank  cars  it  is 
usual  to  provide  a  steel  or  concrete  sump,  to  which  the  oil  is 
emptied  directly  and  from  which  it  flows  by  gravity  or  is  pumped 
to  the  storage  tanks.  The  latter  in  turn  connect  with,  say,  1,000- 
gal.  "measuring  tanks,"  from  which  the  daily  supply  is  taken  into 
the  plant.  Further  pumps,  then,  must  be  provided  to  send 
the  oil  to  the  kiln  burners  under  pressure,  or  the  same  effect  can 
be  produced  by  gravity  if  a  side  hill  unloading  and  storage  suf- 
ficiently above  kiln  level  is  feasible.  Where  oil  pumps  are  used,  it 
is  desirable  to  have  them  in  duplicate,  and  also  to  have  a  duplicate 
or  ring  system  of  piping,  so  that  any  section  can  be  cut  out  or  by- 
passed if  repairs  become  necessary. 

Before  being"  admitted  to  the  burner  spray  nozzles,  the  oil 
must  have  its  temperature  raised  sufficiently  for  atomizing  in  a 
steam  heater  designed  for  this  purpose.  The  low-pressure  system 
requires  a  blower,  but  the  high-pressure  system  takes  a  com- 
pressor, about  the  same  actual  volume  of  free  air  being  drawn 
through  the  intake  in  either  case.  The  high-pressure  system 
effects  a  much  better  atomizing  of  the  oil  but,  of  course,  it  costs 
considerably  more  for  the  compressor,  motor,  electric  current  and 
other  running  expense. 

For  each  rotary  kiln  two  oil  burners  or  multiples  thereof  are 
ordinarily  used,  one  being  equipped  with  a  round-point  nozzle 


FUEL    OIL   IN   THE    CERAMIC   INDUSTRY      229 

and  the  other  with  a  flat  nozzle.  The  former  is  designed  to  throw 
the  flame  to  the  rear  of  the  kiln  and  the  latter  to  hold  the  flame 
near  to  the  front.  By  this  arrangement  of  nozzle  units  and  proper 
regulation  of  the  burner,  the  temperature  can  be  accurately  con- 
trolled at  any  point  in  the  kiln. 

The  competitors  of  fuel  oil  at  cement  plants  are  natural  gas, 
producer  gas,  and  powdered  coal,  of  which  the  last  competes  most 
actively.  The  advantages  of  oil  over  coal  are  obvious.  It  can  be 
transported  with  much  greater  facility;  no  coal  drying,  grinding, 
or  conveying  machinery  is  necessary ;  the  kiln  can  receive  its  sup- 
ply of  fuel  in  a  minimum  of  time  simply  by  turning  a  valve ;  and 
the  supply  can  be  regulated  with  the  greatest  ease. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


HEATING  PUBLIC  BUILDINGS,  HOTELS  AND 
RESIDENCES 

The  increasing  cost  of  coal  and  the  uncertainty  of  obtaining 
a  supply  when  it  is  most  needed  have  brought  about  a  steadily 
increasing  use  of  fuel  oil  for  the  heating  and  lighting  plants  of 
public  buildings,  hotels,  apartment  houses,  and  private  residences 
and  for  many  domestic  purposes. 

A  direct  comparison  of  the  cost  of  one  million  B.  t.  u.  of  coal 
and  one  million  B.  t.  u.  of  oil  is  not  an  index  to  the  desirability  of 
burning  oil  under  the  boilers  of  these  plants.  It  is  necessary  to 
consider  also  the  freedom  from  smoke  and  dust  which  fuel  oil 
burning  insures  and  it  is  also  necessary  to  remember  that  during 
the  spring  and  fall  months  very  little  heat  is  required  to  provide  a 
comfortable  temperature  in  buildings.  If  coal  is  used,  the  con- 
sumption of  fuel  must  continue  after  this  temperature  is  attained, 
but  oil  burners  can  be  shut  off,  stopping  fuel  consumption,  when 
the  desired  temperature  is  reached.  Table  21  gives  the  percent- 
ages of  total  fuel  for  the  season  required  for  the  different  months. 

TABLE  24— MONTHLY  FUEL  REQUIREMENTS  IN  PERCENTAGES 
OP  TOTAL  FOR  SEASON 


State 

October 

November 

December 

January 

February 

March 

April 

May 

New  York  

3 

7 

15 

25 

22 

20 

5 

;{ 

Michigan  

5 

12 

15 

18 

21 

17 

S 

4 

Pennsylvania  .  . 

8 

12 

13 

15 

16 

19 

12 

5 

Ohio  

3 

12 

18 

21 

19 

14 

11 

2 

Missouri  

3 

11 

18 

22 

20 

13 

10 

3 

The  ease  with  which  fuel  oil  burners  respond  to  peak  load  de- 
mands for  heat  and  light  makes  them  especially  desirable  for  office 
buildings.  Elimination  of  the  expense  of  ash  removal  when  burn- 
ing oil  is  also  a  point  to  be  considered. 

Fig.  98  shows  the  oil  burner  installation  at  the  San  Francisco 
Hospital.  The  San  Francisco  Hospital  consists  of  ten  buildings, 
costing  $3,500,000,  and  is  maintained  by  the  City  and  County  of 
San  Francisco  for  the  treatment  of  its  sick  poor.  It  has  accom- 
modations for  1,000  patients.  It  is  the  practice  at  the  hospital 
plant  to  heat  the  oil  to  a  temperature  of  about  270  degrees,  forcing 

230 


HEATING  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  BUILDINGS    231 

it  through  the  burner  tip  at  about  130  pounds  pressure.    The  sy^ 
tern  consists  primarily  of  two  duplex  oil  pumps  and  two  oil  heat- 
ers and  burner.     Two  pumps  and  two  heaters  are  provided,  so 


FIG.  98.     Oil-Burner  Installation  at  San  Francisco  Hospital. 

that  in  case  of  a  breakdown,  or  in  case  of  overflow,  there  will 
always  be  one  pump  and  one  heater  in  reserve.  About  50  barrels 
of  fuel  oil  are  used  each  day,  the  supply  being  carried  in  a  12.000- 


FIG.   99.      Sectional  View  of   Firebox   Construction  of  a   Schoolhouse   Hot-air  Furnace. 
(Courtesy    of    Fess    System    Co.) 

gallon  steel  tank  placed  under  the  floor  of  the  fire  room.  As  a 
protection  the  steel  tank  is  surrounded  with  a  brick  wall.  The 
power  plant  consists  of  four  250-horsepower  Heine  boilers,  and 


232 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


the  entire  boiler  room  is  looked  after  by  one  fireman.  Since  the 
plant  was  installed  ,six  years  ago,  it  has  never  been  shut  down. 
It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  this  plant  be  in  constant  operation 
because  the  hospital  is  completely  isolated  from  all  outside 
sources  of  power.  Electricity  for  power  and  light  are  generated 
by  four  125  kilowatt  Curtis  turbine  generator  units.  There  are 
138  motors  throughout  the  hospital  which  operate  the  equipment 
of  the  hospital.  All  steam  and  hot  water  for  the  hospital  is  sup- 
plied by  the  power  plant. 

Fuel  oil  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  school  power  plants.  Fig.  99 
gives  a  sectional  view  of  a  schoolhouse  hot-air  furnace.  Fig.  100 
shows  the  oil-burning  equipment  now  installed  in  all  new  San 
Francisco  schools. 


FIG.    100.     Oil-Burner   Equipment   Installed   in    San    Francisco    Schools. 

During  the  coal  famine  in  Chicago  in  the  winter  of  1919, 
many  of  the  Chicago  schools  installed  fuel  oil  burners.  The  oil- 
burning  systems  were  installed  and  burning  in  four  days.a  The 
installation  provided  at  the  schools  has  the  steam-atomizing  pres- 
sure system  of  supplying  oil  to  boiler  firing.  For  conditions  such 
as  obtained  at  the  schools  selected,  this  was  the  quickest  and  most 
economical,  as  well  as  the  simplest  installation  that  could  be 
made.  The  equipment  consisted  of  storage  tank,  or  tanks,  duplex 
steam-driven  oil  pump,  steam  and  oil  piping,  oil  burners,  and  a. 
small  auxiliary  boiler.  The  following  description,  with  minor 
variations,  will  outline  a  typical  installation : 

Two  horizontal,  steel  storage  tanks,  6  ft.  in  diameter  by  12  ft. 
long,  each  having  a  capacity  of  2,000  gallons  of  oil,  were  installed. 

a.  Oil  News,  Jan.  5,  1920,  p.  38. 


HEATING  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  BUILDINGS    233 

These  tanks  were  so  inter-connected  by  piping  as  to  permit  of 
either  tank  being  drawn  from  or  filled  separately,  thereby  insur- 
ing an  uninterrupted  service  of  oil  to  the  burners.  Inside  each 
tank  and  surrounding  the  suction  pipe,  a  pipe  coil  was  placed, 
through  which  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  oil  pump  is  discharged 
for  the  purpose  of  heating  up  the  oil  sufficiently  to  keep  it  in  a 


FIG.    101.     Fuel   Oil   Burner   Installation   in   Chicago    Schools. 

free-flowing  condition  during  cold  weather.  As  the  tanks  are 
located  outdoors  and  exposed  to  all  degrees  of  weather,  they  were 
insulated  with  hair  felt  and  a  weather-proof  covering  in  order 
to  conserve  the  heat  supplied  from  the  exhaust-steam  coil  and 
to  keep  the  whole  mass  of  oil  in  as  free-flowing  condition  as  pos- 
sible. A  by-pass  from  the  live-steam  line  to  the  exhaust-steam 


234 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


line  was  provided,  so  that  when  occasion  requires  live  steam  can 
be  used  for  heating  the  oil. 

A  two-inch  pipe  was  run  from  the  tanks  to  the  oil  pump  to 
provide  suction  to  the  pump,  and  a  pipe  1^4  m-  m  diameter  was 
run  from  the  pump  and  along  the  front  of  the  boiler,  from  which 
a  connection  was  provided  to  each  burner.  A  pressure  relief  valve 
was  installed  in  the  discharge  line  from  the  pump  and  releasing 
into  the  suction  line.  This  valve  affords  relief  in  case  the  pres- 
sure on  the  discharge  line  should  go  higher  than  desired.  A 
pressure  gauge  was  installed  on  the  discharge  line  so  that  the 
operator  can  know  at  all  times  the  pressure  of  oil  supplied  to 
(he  burners. 


FIG.  102.     Boiler  Room  of  a  Modern  60-Room  Apartment  Hotel. 

The  main  steam  header  in  the  boiler  room  was  tapped  and  a 
connection  made  for  the  branch  steam  line  to  supply  steam  for 
operating  the  oil  pump  and  for  atomizing  the  oil  at  the  burners. 
A  connection  was  made  from  this  branch  line  to  each  burner. 

The  pump  for  supplying  oil  under  pressure  to  the  burners  is 
an  ordinary  duplex,  piston-type  steam  pump,  equipped  with  a  con- 
trol governor  for  maintaining  a  steady  pressure  on  the  oil  dis- 
charge line. 

To  furnish  steam  for  operating  the  oil  pumping  system  when 
the  main  boilers  are  cold,  an  auxiliary  upright  "Donkey"  boiler 


HEATING  PUBLIC  AND  PRIVATE  BUILDINGS    235 


of  6  to  10  H.  P.  capacity  was  provided.     As  soon  as  steam  is 
raised  on  the  main  boilers  this  auxiliary  boiler  is  cut  out  of  the 


103.     Fuel  Oil  Heating  a  Residence  Boiler  and  a   Brick 

Kitchen    Range. 
(Courtesy   of   The   Fess   System    Co.) 

system  and  the  fire  allowed  to  die  out.  Fuel  for  firing  the  small 
boiler  is  largely  furnished  by  the  paper  and  refuse  collected  from 
the  school  rooms  on  the  preceding  day. 


FIG.    104. 

(Courtesy  W.   S 


Oil-Burner    Applied    to    Hotel    Range. 
.    Ray   Mfg.   Co.) 


Fig.  101  shows  the  installation  in  the  Chicago  schools. 

Owners  of  large  and  small  apartment  houses  have  been  quick 
to  see  the  advantages  and  the  ultimate  economy  of  burning  fuel 
oil.  Fig.  102  shows  the  boiler  room  of  a  modern  60-room  apart- 


236 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


ment  house.  The  oil  is  pumped  from  an  underground  tank  100 
feet  distant.  This  equipment  operates  one  low-pressure  steam- 
heating  boiler  and  one  water  heater.  This  building  is  furnished 
with  a  steady  steam  pressure  automatically  regulated  at  four 
pounds  gauge  pressure,  and  with  hot  water  at  140°. 

Steam  heating  companies  usually  estimate  that  each  square 
foot  of  direct  steam  radiation  will  require  500  Ibs.  of  steam  per 
season.  In  Federal  buildings  with  a  heating  and  ventilating 
apparatus,  each  7,000  cu.  ft.  of  contents  will  require  1  boiler  horse- 


FIG.  105.     Oil-Burner  Applied  to  Bakers'  Ovens. 
(Courtesy    of    S.    T.    Johnson    Co.) 

power.  Under  normal  conditions  1  B.  H.  P.  will  supply  138  sq. 
ft.  of  radiation.  One  square  foot  of  steam  radiation  gives  off 
about  260  B.  t.  u.  per  hour  and  1  square  foot  of  water  radiation 
gives  off  about  160.  One  B.  t.  u.  will  raise  the  temperature  to  55 
cu.  ft.  of  air  1  degree  F.  One  pound  of  oil  will  evaporate 
approximately  12  Ibs.  of  water  per  hour  in  a  heating  boiler  and 
100  sq.  ft.  of  radiation  will  require  33  1/3  Ibs.  of  water  per  hour. 
Fig.  103  shows  a  sectional  view  of  a  residence  where  fuel  oil 
is  used  for  the  heating  boiler  and  in  a  brick  set  kitchen  range. 
Fig.  104  shows  a  fuel  oil  burner  applied  to  a  hotel  range.  The 
close  regulation  of  heat  possible  with  an  oil  burner  makes  fuel 
oil  an  ideal  fuel  for  ranges  and  for  bakeries.  Fig.  105  shows  a 
bakers'  oven  burner..  When  firing  is  finished  this  burner  swings 
back  out  of  the  way  and  lies  flat  against  the  side  of  the  oven. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

OIL   IN  GAS-MAKING 

William  Murdock  of  London,  first  employed  coal  gas  for 
illuminating  houses,  and  his  system  was  introduced  for  lighting 
the  streets  of  London  in  1812  and  for  lighting  the  streets  of  Paris 
in  1815.  Since  the  introduction  of  Murdock's  system,  gas  lighting 
has  developed  remarkably. 

The  gas  produced  during  the  carbonization  of  coal  is  a  mix- 
ture of  fixed  gases,  vapors  of  various  kinds,  and  at  times  also 
globules  of  liquids  held  in  suspension  and  carried  forward  by  the 
gas.  Water-gas  is  produced  by  the  action  of  steam  on  incandes- 
cent carbon  and  is  composed  chiefly  of  hydrogen  and  carbon  mon- 
oxide. Water-gas  is  not  luminous,  but  has  a  high  heat  value.  The 
luminosity  of  a  gas  depends  upon  the  presence  of  hydrocarbons, 
and  in  order  to  render  water-gas  luminous  it  is  carbureted  with 
gases  derived  from  oil  which  are  rich  in  illuminants.  Illuminating 
water-gas  can  be  made  by  two  general  methods : 

( 1 )  The  carburetted  gas  is  made  in  one  operation. 

(2)  Non-luminous  gas  is  prepared  and  then  carburetted  by 
a  second  process. 

There  are  several  systems  for  making  oil-gas  which  are  dis- 
tinguished from  those  known  as  carburetted  water-gas  systems. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Pintsch,  the  Blaugas,  and  the 
Peebles  process.  In  all  of  these  the  oil  gas  is  made  by  cracking 
the  oil  in  retorts.  In  the  Pintsch  process  a  transverse  partition 
divides  the  retort  into  an  upper  and  lower  chamber.  In  the  upper 
chamber  the  oil  is  cracked  and  vaporized,  the  vapor  passing  into 
the  lower  compartment,  which  is  heated  to  nearly  1000  C.,  where 
permanent  gases  are  formed.  In  the  Peebles  process  the  oil  is 
only  partly  cracked,  and  only  the  very  volatile  hydrocarbons  leave 
the  apparatus.  In  the  Blaugas  process  gas-oil  is  conducted  into 
the  retorts  just  as  it  is  in  the  manufacture  of  Pintsch  and  other 
oil  gases  and  is  vaporized  and  decomposes  in  this  retort  under  the 
temperature  of  about  550  to  600  degrees  C.,  this  low  temperature 
being  employed  to  prevent  the  production  of  a  large  percentage  of 
fixed  gases.  After  the  oil  has  thus  been  distilled  the  gas  is  con- 

237 


238 


FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


ducted  in  the  usual  manner  through  coolers,  cleaners  and  scrub- 
bers in  order  to  remove  the  tar  from  the  gases,  and  the  gases  are 
then  conducted  into  large  holders  for  storage. 

From  the  holder  the  gas  is  drawn  into  a  three-stage  or  four- 
stage  compressor,  where  it  is  compressed  to  100  atmospheres. 
Under  this  pressure  the  oil  gas  is  reduced  to  1 /400th  of  its  volume, 
the  gas  so  obtained  being  of  a  specific  gravity  approximately  the 
same  as  atmospheric  air.  It  has  a  calorific  value  of  about  1,800 
B.  t.  u.'s  per  cu.  ft.,  or  approximately  three  times  the  heat  value 
of  ordinary  city  gas. 


FIG.     106.     Apparatus    for    Gas    Making    by    Lowe    Process. 
(From  Outlines  of  Industrial  Chemistry,  Thorp.) 

The  manufacture  of  oil-gas  by  the  three  processes  mentioned 
is  for  the  purpose  of  transporting  it  for  the  lighting  of  railway 
cars  or  isolated  buildings,  and  also  for  steel  and  cast  iron  welding, 
brazing,  soldering  and  for  all  other  purposes  where  a  uniform  gas 
with  high  heat  units  is  essential.  About  eight  gallons  of  oil  are  re- 
quired per  1,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas. 

By  far  the  greatest  consumption  of  oil  in  gas  manufactured 
is  in  the  manufacture  of  carburetted  water-gas.  The  process  for 
the  manufacture  of  carburetted  oil-gas  was  devised  by  Prof.  Lowe 
in  1874.  The  Lowe  process  is  carried  out  as  follows : 

The  generator   (Fig.   106)   is  filled  with  anthracite  coal  or 


OIL  IN   GAS-MAKING 


239 


coke,  which  is  brought  to  incandescence  by  a  blast  of  air.  The 
gases  from  the  generator,  at  this  time  consisting  mainly  of  carbon 
monoxide  and  nitrogen,  enter  at  the  top  of  the  carburetor,  a 
circular  chamber  lined  with  firebrick,  and  containing  a  "checker- 
work"  of  the  same  material ;  while  passing  down  through  this,  the 
gas  is  partly  burned  by  an  air  blast  which  enters  the  apparatus 
near  the  top,  and  the  checker-work  is  heated  white  hot.  The 
gases  pass  on  to  the  ''superheater,''  a  taller  chamber,  also  filled 
with  checker-work.  At  the  bottom  of  this  an  air  blast  is  intro- 
duced to  complete  the  burning  of  the  producer  gas  and  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  checker-work  to  a  very  bright  red  heat. 


FIG.    107.     Charging   Floor    of    Gas-Generating   Apparatus    in    which    Oil    Is    Used    for 

Enrichment. 
(Courtesy  Tide  Water  Oil  Company.) 

From  the  top  of  the  superheater,  the  waste  gases  escape  into  a 
hood  leading  into  the  open  air.  When  both  the  carburetor  and 
superheater  have  reached  the  desired  temperature,  the  air  blasts 
are  cut  off,  and  the  steam  is  introduced  into  the  generator,  where  it 
is  decomposed  by  the  incandescent  fuel,  according  to  the  reactions. 
The  water-gas  thus  formed  passes  into  the  carburetor,  while 
a  small  stream  of  oil  is  being  introduced  through  a  pipe  at  the  top. 
The  oil  is  decomposed  by  contact  with  the  hot  checker-work,  form- 
ing illuminating  gases  which  mix  with  the  water-gas,  and,  passing 
into  the  superheater,  are  completely  fixed  as  non-condensable 
gases. 


240  FUEL  OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

It  is  customary  to  run  the  air  blast  for  some  eight  minutes, 
when  the  fuel  reaches  a  temperature  of  about  1100°  C.  The 
steam,  superheated  before  entering  the  generator,  is  run  about  six 
minutes,  until  the  temperature  of  the  generator  and  carburetor 
has  fallen  below  the  point  at  which  decomposition  occurs.  In  or- 
der to  economize  heat,  the  hot  carburetted  gas  is  passed  through 
a  pipe  surrounded  by  a  jacket,  within  which  the  oil  is  circulating, 
thus  heating  it  before  it  enters  the  carburetor.  The  lower  end  of 
the  pipe  leading  from  the  superheater  is  closed  by  a  water  seal  to 
prevent  any  backward  rush  of  the  gas  during  the  operation  of  the 
air  blast.  It  is  customary  to  lead  the  gas  from  the  superheater 
into  a  storage  holder,  from  which  it  is  drawn  through  the  purify- 
ing apparatus.  In  this  process,  the  blowing  of  air  and  of  steam 
are  intermittent,  but  the  actual  formation  of  gas  is  accomplished 
in  one  operation.  The  impurities  in  the  water-gas  are  essentially 
the  same  as  those  in  coal  gas,  and  the  method  of  washing  and 
purifying  are  the  same. 

In  the  making  of  carburetted  water-gas  of  535  B.  t.  u.'s  per 
cu.  ft.  about  three  gallons  of  gas  oil  are  required.  As  the  B.  t. 
u.'s  per  cu.  ft.  increase  the  amount  of  oil  necessary  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  gas  increases,  and  if  gas  of  600  B.  t.  u.'s  per  cu.  ft. 
is  required,  approximately  3.75  gallons  of  oil  per  1000  cu.  ft.  are 
necessary.  Generally  gas-makers  assume  a  consumption  of  3^ 
gallons  per  1000  cu.  ft.  of  carburetted  water-gas.  Fig.  107 
shows  the  charging  floor  of  a  gas  generating  apparatus  in  which 
oil  is  used  for  enrichment. 


APPENDIX 
USES  OF  FUEL  OIL 


Feul  oil  has  come  into  general  use  in  the  industries  and  its 
use  is  not  limited  geographically.  A  list  of  the  purposes  for 
which  fuel  oil  may  be  used  would  comprise  every  known  industry. 
It  is  in  common  use,  however,  for  the  following  purposes : 


Annealing  Furnaces 

Asphalt  Mixers 

Assay  and  Fusion   Furnaces 

Babbit  Melting 

Billet  Heating 

Bake  Ovens 

Boiler  Making 

Bolt  Furnaces 

Brazing  and  Dip  Brazing 

Breweries 

Brick  Making 

Bullion  Melting 

Candy  Furnaces 

Canneries 

Case  Hardening 

Cement  Works 

Cement  Kilns 

Cloth   Singeing 

Continuous  Heating 

Cook  Stoves 

Copper  Melting 

Core  Drying 

Cranes 

Cremating 

Crucible  Furnaces 

Cupel  lation  Furnaces 

Cycle  Making 

Drop  Forging 

Electric  Power  Plants 

Enamelling 

Fire  Engines 

Fo'undries 

Galvanizing 

Gas   Making 

Glass  Making 

Glass  Melting 

Glass  Binding 

Gold   Cyanide   Smelting 

House  Heating 

Incinerators 

Japanning 

Ladle  Heating 

Lead  Baths 


Lead   Melting 

Locomotives 

Nut  Making 

Ore  Smelting 

Petroleum  Distillation 

Pipe  Bending 

Plate  Heating 

Pottery  Baking 

Pumping  Works 

Ranges 

Rivet   Heating 

Rivet   Making 

Rolling  Furnaces 

Rotary  Kilns 

Sand  Drying 

Screwmaking 

Shaft  heating 

Shipbuilding 

Shovel  Making 

Smelting 

Silver  Refining 

Smithy  Work 

Spring  Tempering 

Steam  Cranes 

Steam  Shovels 

Steam  Boilers 

Steel  Melting 

Sugar  Refining 

Tea  Drying 

Tempering 

Tilting  Furnaces 

Tinplate  Making 

Tin  Smelting 

Tractors 

Tool  Making 

Tube  Making 

Tire  Heating 

Water  Heaters 

Welding 

Wire  Annealing 

Wire  Making 

Zinc  Distillation 


241 


Index 


A  Page 

Advantages  of  fuel  oil 59 

in    steam    navigation 159 

for  locomotives 171 

Air,  composition  of 6 

physical  changes  in,  due  to  temper- 
ature          15 

Air    nitrates   plant,    lime    kilns    at....    226 
American    Society    for   Testing    Mate- 
rials,   flash   point   test   of 30 

viscosity  test  of 20 

Andrews,  <  H.   P.,   concrete  tank   speci- 
fications           81 

Appendix    241 

Arrangement   of   boiler   furnaces 132 

Asphaltic    petroleum    17 

Atomizer  pressures    148 

in   Santa  Fe  locomotives 181 

Atwater   calorimeter    36 


Page 


B 

Babcock   and   Wilcox   oil   furnace.... 

Baffling    oil    furnace 

Bagasse,   See  Begasse. 
Bakers'   Ovens,  oil  burners  applied  to 
Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  oil  burn- 
ing  equipment   used   by 

Barges  for  carrying  fuel  oil 

Barometric   pressure    

Baume    hydrometers 

Baume   scale,    specific   gravity    equiva- 
lents   of    

Begasse,    analysis    of 207, 

as   fuel    

calorific   values    of 

Bessemer    converter    

Best,    W.    N.,    discussion    of   atomiza- 

tion    • 

Blaugas  process  of  gas  making 

Bohnstengel,    Walter,    description    of 

Santa  Fe  locomotives   

Boiler  efficiency  for  excess  air  supply 
Boiler    furnaces    for    oil   burning,    ar- 
rangement  of 

Boilers,  Babcock  and  Wilcox,  fuel  oil 
burner   under    

return  tubular,   fuel  oil  burner  un- 
der      

Scotch-Marine,   fuel  oil  burner   un- 
der      

Stirling  water  tube,  fuel  oil  burner 
under     

Types   of    

Vertical    tubular,    fuel    oil    burner 

under 

Booth   oil   burner 

Brass-melting    furnace    

Brick-making,    fuel   oil    in 

British  thermal  unit,  definition  of... 
Bunkering  stations  of  Shipping  Board 
Burners, 

atomizer    

chamber     

drooling    

mechanical    

injector     

oil,   types   of 

oil,    U.    S.    N.    Liquid    Fuel    Board 
report    on     

projector     

spray    

vapor     

Burner    tips,    types    of... 

Burning    point    of    fuel    oil 

Butler  Manufacturing  Company,  tank 
prices     


142 
140 

230 

180 
71 
34 
27 


209 
207 
209 
185 

154 
237 

177 


132 
142 
141 
139 

140 
132 

138 
177 
195 
223 
35 
160 

148 
148 
148 
146 
148 
145 

145 

148 
148 
145 
152 
35 

80 


Calorific  value  of  colloidal  fuel 

of   coal    49 

of   fuel    oii 3,->t     44 

Calorimeters,    description   of .'     35 

standard   types    .'  .      30 

Carbon,  air  requirements   for 6 

combustion  of .        6 

Carburetted    water-gas, 

manufacture    of    238 

oil     required     for 240 

Car    type    furnace 196 

Case    hardening    furnace 194 

Centimeters    to   inches,    conversion    of     34 

Centrifuging    39,  40 

Ceramic   industries,   fuel    oil   in 223 

Chamber  burners    148 

Charging   an    oil   burning   open-hearth 

furnace      19J 

Chicago    regulations   for   oil    storage..    108 
Chicago    schools,     oil    burning    equip- 
ment   for    232 

Chimney   design   for  oil   burning 143 

Clay    products,   manufacture    of 223 

Cleveland   open-cup  tester    30 

Closed-cup   testers,    types   of 30 

Coal,    analysis   of 49 

ash    in     49,   r>0,     52 

bituminous    45 

classes  of    43 

compared    with    fuel    oil 44 

moisture    in     50,     51 

production    of    45 

pulverized     53 

sizes    of    47 

testing    of     44 

Coal  fields  in   U.   S 47 

Coen    hinged    firing    front Iu6 

Colloidal  fuel,  B.  t.  u.'s  in 63 

definition    of    61 

fixateur   for    67 

percent  of  coal  suspended  in 65 

Concrete   storage   tanks 81,     98 

concerns  using  in  U.   S 88 

Combustion,  efficiency  of 6 

principles    of    fuel    oil 5 

Conversion   of  centimeters  to   inches.      34 

COo  and   fuel   losses 10 

content   in   flue  gasses 8,     12 

Crude  petroleum, 

classes  of    17 

composition    of    17 


Disadvantages  of  using  fuel   oil.,...      60 
Distribution   of   fuel  oil  .............      69 

to    consumer    ....................    114 


Drooling    burner    ..................    148 

modifications    of    .............  150.   151 


Efficiencies,  fuel  oil  vs.  powdered  coal     56 
Electricity,  fuel  oil  in   production  of.    198 
amount    of    fuel    consumed    in    pro 

duction   of    199 

Electric   power,   sources    of 200 

Engler    viscosimeter    20,    23,     24 

Evaporative   values,   coal   vs.    oil 178 

Explosives,  combustion  of    5 


Factor  for  equivalent  evaporative 

values  17& 

Federal  buildings,  boiler  horsepower 

for  236 

Filters    112.  117 


INDEX 


243 


Page 

Filter   press,  type  of 208 

Flashpoint   of   fuel   oil 19,     30 

Flue   gas   analysis,   typical 12 

Fuel  consumed  in  production  of  elec- 
tric  power    199 

Fuel   oil, 

air  requirements  for  combustion   of       7 

B.   T.    U.'s  in 39 

burning   point   of 35 

burner    tips    for    1*2 

calorific    value    of 35,      41 

chemical   combustion   of 6 

compared    with    coal 44 

compared    with    pulverized   coal....      56 

combustible    elements    of 6 

consumed    by    railroads 177,   182 

definition    of    19 

distribution    of    69 

flash    point    of 19,     30 

for   locomotives,    advantages    of....    171 

in  ceramic    industries    223 

in  gas-making    237 

in  glass   industry    216 

in  manufacture    of    iron    and   steel.    184 

in   open-hearth    furnaces    186,   187 

in   Portland    cement    manufacture.  .    227 

in   production    of    electricity 198 

in   steam    navigation    157 

in  the    sugar    industry 206 

moisture    in    6,      39 

physical    and    mechanical    properties 

of    17 

specific   gravity   of 27 

specifications   of    19 

storage    of    69 

sulphur    content    of 40 

tests    of    20 

under    boilers    132 

viscosity   of    20 

water   content   of 39 

Fuel  oil   burners, 

mechanical      146 

spray    148 

types   of    145 

vapor     145 

Fuel   oil   storage 69 

Chicago    regulations    108 

National     Fire     Protection     Associ- 
ation  Rules    94 

New    York    City    regulations 103 

regulations  for    94 

Furnaces,   heat  treating    193 

Furnace    design,    for    oil    burning.  .  .  .    132 
fundamentals    of     134,   136 


Gas   oil,   definition   of 19 

for   gas    making    240 

Gasoline,    definition    of 19 

Gas   making,   oil   in 237 

process   of    238 

Gasses,    flow    of    in    furnaces 134 

flue,  analysis  of 12 

testing    of     8 

velocity   of  in  furnace 133 

Glass,    composition    of 216 

furnaces,    forms    of 216 

industry,  fuel  oil  in 216 

Glory  hole   furnace,   in  glass   making.  220 

Golden     Gate    U.     S.     R.     C.,     steam 

trials   of    168 

H 

Haney,    Jiles    W.,    discussion    of    me- 
chanical   burners    147 

Heaters,  for  fuel  oil  systems 118 

Heating,   by   steam 102,  117 

hotels,    by    fuel    oil    230 

public  buildings,    by   fuel   oil 230 

residences,   by    fuel   oil 230 


Page 

Heat    treating    furnaces 193 

Hotel   heating    230 

Hotel   ranges,    oil   burners   for 235 

Humidity,  boiler  efficiency  affected  by  14 

Hydrogen,   air   requirements   for 6 

combustion    of    6 

Hydrometers, 

Baume     27 

determination  of  specific  gravity  by  27 

proper  method  of  reading 28 

I 

Injector   burners    148 

J 
Janitzky,    E.    J.,     discussion    of    heat 

treatment    .  193 


Kerosene,  definition  of... 
Kilns,  lime,  fuel  oil  in.. 
Kroeker  calorimeter  


Layout  of  oil  system 

Lime  burning,  fuel  oil  in 

Lime  kilns,  types  of 

Limestone,  composition  of 

Lieutenant  de  Missiessy,  steamship. 
Liquid  fuel, 

advantages  and  disadvantages  of. 
Locomotives,  oil  burning  

oil    first    burned    in 

fuel   results,   Santa  Fe  system 

Santa  Fe,  atomizer  burners  in... 
Lowe  process  of  gas-making 


19 

224 

36 


188 
224 
224 
223 
169 

59 
171 
171 

179 
181 

238 


M 


Mahler    calorimeter    ,  .  36,     38 

Manoa,  S.  S.,  fire  room  of 165 

Manufacture   of   iron    and    steel,    fuel 

oil    in    184 

Mariposa,   S.    S.,   fuel  oil   data  of....    161 
Martin,   K.   L.,   discussion   of   furnace 

design    138 

Master  Car  Builders'  Association  speci- 
fications           76 

Mechanical    oil    burners 146 

Mexican   railway    storage   tanks 78 

Mill   for  crushing  sugar  cane 207 

Missouri,  Kansas  and  Texas  Railroad, 

fuel   oil  data  of 172 

Monthly    fuel    requirements    for    heat- 
ing   buildings    230 

N 
National   Fire   Protection   Association, 

rules  for  oil  storage 94 

Navigation,   steam,   fuel  oil   in 157 

New    York    City    regulations    for    oil 

storage    103 


Oceanic   Steamship   Company's  steam- 
ers      170 

Oils,  American,  calorific  values  of .  .  .  41 

sulphur  in    41 

used  as   fuel    18 

Oil,    in    ceramic    industries 223 

in  gas-making    237 

in  glass   industry    216 

in  heat   treating   furnaces 

in  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel..  184 

in  Portland    cement   manufacture..  227 

in  production    of    electricity 198 

in  steam    navigation    157 

in     sugar   industry    206 

Oil  barges 71 


244 


INDEX 


Page 
Oil  burners, 

mechanical    146 

spray  type    148 

types  of    145 

vapor 145 

Oil  burning  locomotives 171 

railroads    using    174 

Oil  burner    tips 152 

Oil  heaters 117 

spiral   118 

types  of    118 

Oil  storage  tanks,   construction   of...  189 

Oil  system,  layout  of    188 

Oil  tankers    69,   70,  71 

Open-cup   testers,   types  of 30 

Open-hearth    furnaces,    fuel   oil   burn- 
ing   186 

Orsat    apparatus    8,  11 


Paraffin    petroleums     17 

Peebles    process    of    gas-making 237 

Pensky-Martens    closed-cup    tester...  30 

Periodic    lime    kilns     224 

Petroleum,   asphaltic    17 

composition     of     17 

crude,    as    fuel    17 

paraffin,  occurrence  of   17 

products    of     17 

Philippine    Vegetable    Oil    Co 70 

Pintsch    process    of    gas-making 237 

Piping     95,  101,  107,  112,  113 

Pipes,    steam,    for   heating    oil.  ..  .117,  124 

Plate    glass,    manufacture    of 220 

Portland    cement, 

Advantages    of    oil    in    manufacture 

of     229 

Composition    of    227 

fuel    oil    in    manufacture    of 227 

Pressure  on  oil  circuit,  regulation  of.  122 

Prices    of    steel    storage    tanks 80 

Pulsometer,   in  oil   burning  system .  .  .  125 

Pulverized    coal    53 

compared    with    fuel    oil 56 

efficiency    of    56 

Pumping    systems    for    burners.  ..  117,  124 


Railroad     companies,     fuel     oil     con- 
sumed   by     177 

Railroad    storage    tanks     74,77 

Railways    using    fuel    oil 174 

Redwood    viscosimeter    23 

equivalent  readings   for 25 

Regenerative  furnace  in  glass-making.   218 

Regulating     117 

Regulation    of   pressure   in   oil    circuit  122 
Regulators   in  oil  burning   systems.  .  .    126 

Reinforced  concrete  reservoir    83 

Reservoir  storage  tanks   81 

Residence  heating    236 

Return  tubular  boiler,  fuel  oil  burner 

under     141 

Rickard,  S.  D.,  essential  points  in  oil 

burning  system 155 

selection  of  storage  tanks 78 

Rod-heating   furnace    194 

Rotary    kilns   for   lime   burning 226 


San  Francisco  hospital,  oil  burning  at  230 

San    Francisco    schools,    oil    burning 

equipment     232 

Santa   Fe   Railway    System,   oil  burn- 
ing equipment  of 177 

Saybolt,  viscosimeter 20,     21 

equivalents  for   readings   of 26 

Schools,    Chicago,    oil    burning    equip- 
ment       232 

San    Francisco,    oil    burning    equip- 
ment     


School  power  plants,  fuel  oil  in 232 

Sediment   in    fuel    oil 20 

Shell  Company's  barges   73 

Shipping  Board,   bunkering  stations.  .    160 

steamers    160 

Sources  of  electric  power 200 

Specifications    of    fuel    oil 19 

Specific    gravity,     Baume     equivalents 

of    32 

of  fuel  oil    27 

Spiral   oil   heater 118 

Spray    burners    148 

Stack    sizes    for   oil    fuel 144 

Standard   Oil   Company's  barge 71 

Steam   coils   in   storage   tanks 79 

Steam    for    heating    117 

Steam   navigation,    fuel   oil    in 157 

Steel    storage   tanks    79,  95 

Stirling    water    tube    boiler,    fuel    oil 

burner   under    140 

Storage   of   fuel   oil 69 

Storage  regulations    94 

National    Fire    Protection    Associa- 
tion          94 

Chicago     108 

New    York    City    103 

Storage    Tanks 96,  111 

along    Mexican    Railway    78 

concrete    81 

of    railroads    74,  77 

steel     78,82 

Straining,    in   burning    systems.  .  .117,  119 

Sugar   industry,    fuel    oil    in 206 

Sulphur    content    of   fuel    oil 40 

T 

Tagliabue.    closed-cup    testers    30,  31 

open-cup  testers    30 

viscosimeters    20 

Tank     car     development 74 

Tanks,    storage,    concrete    81,     98 

storage,   steel    79,     95 

Tank    trucks 115 

Tank   wagons  in   oil   delivery 114 

Tankers  for  carrying  fuel  oil 69 

Tempering   bath    furnace 195 

Tests    of    oil-burning   steamships.....    161 
of  oil-fired  boiler  at  electric   plant.    203 

for   fuel   oil 20 

Testers,    closed-cup    30 

open-cup    30 

Tide    Water    Oil    Company,    data    on 

oil  burning  ships    160 

Tips    of    oil    burners 152 

Trans-Pacific   steamers,   oil  cargoes   of     72 

Trucks,    motor,    delivery    by 115 

U 

Uses    of    fuel    oil...... 241 

U.    S.    Navy    specifications 19 

V 

Valves    81,   102,   110,   113 

Vapor   burners    . 145 

Vertical     tubular     boiler,     oil     burner 

under     138 

Viscosimeters    20 

equivalent    readings    for     . » 25 

types   of    23 

Viscosity  of  fuel  oil 19,20,     22 

test    of    20 

Von    Boden-Ingalls    burners    178 

W 

Water  content  of  fuel  oil 20,     39 

separation    of    120 

Water-gas,    manufacture    of    238 

West  Conob,  S.  S.,  data  on  oil  burn- 
ing        162 

Westinghouse      Air-Brake      Company, 

concrete    tank    specifications 93 

Weymouth,  C.  R.,  data  on  stack  sizes  144 
Window-elass   making    221 


232       Window-glass   making 


INDEX 

to 

CATALOGUE 
SECTION 


Page 

American  Petroleum  Products  Co 246 

Anderson  &  Gu'staf son,  Inc . 247 

James  B.  Berry's  Sons  Co 248 

Butler  Mfg.  Co 249 

Carhill  Petroleum  Co.,  Inc 250 

Carson   Petroleum   Co 251 

Daily  Oil  News  Report 273 

Davis  Welding  &  Mfg.  Co 252 

Franklin  Oil  Works 253 

General  Refining  Co 254 

Grider,  Inc.,  Arch  D 255 

Indiahoma  Refg.  Co 256 

Johnson  Oil  Refg.  Co 257 

Keystone  Oil  &  Mfg.  Co 258 

Lake  Park  Refg.  Co 259 

Maguire  Pet.  Co.,  C.  L 260 

Midco  Oil  Sales  Co 261 

Mutual  Oil  Co 262 

Oil  News 272 

Penna  Flex.  Met.  Tub  Co 263 

Petroleum  Handbook 274 

Shaffer  Oil  &  Refg.  Co 264 

Sloan  &  Zook 265 

Southern  Oil  Corp   266 

Steam  Corp.,  The 267 

Tagliabue  Mfg.  Co.,  The 268 

Wayne  Oil  Tank  &  Pump  Co 269 

Wenger  Armstrong  Pet.  Co 270 

Worthington  Co.,  The 271 


246  FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 

Absolutely  Reliable  Shipments 

OF 

HIGH  GRADE 

FUEL  OILS 

From  Advantageous  Points 


AMERICAN   PETROLEUM 
PRODUCTS  COMPANY 

Chicago  Warren,  Pa.  Cleveland 

Peoples  Gas  Bldg.  Williamson  Bldg 

Tulsa  New  York 

Lynch  Bldg.  London,  Eng.  11  Bnoadway 


FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY  247 


ANDERSON  &GUSTAFSON,  Inc. 

Refinery:  ^^SfSfe^  Refinery: 

GUSHING,      <^fw^l/e^£>     COLUMBUS, 
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vx  1^,  L/\  •  ^^^spA^BBB*^^^^^  v/n»V^ 


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of 

PETROLEUM  AND  ITS  PRODUCTS 

FUEL  OIL  —  GAS  OIL 

With  our  two  refineries  located  at 
Gushing,  Oklahoma  and  Columbus, 
Ohio — together  with  our  storage  facili- 
ties in  Chicago,  and  our  own  tank 
cars — we  are  in  a  position  to  render 
A.  &  G.  service  on  all  your  requirements. 

We  have  an  efficient  traffic  department 
in  every  office  listed  below  and  we  dis- 
patch special  service  men  to  points  of 
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Send  us  your  inquiries 
General  Offices: 

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FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 


249 


A  Real  Tank 

For  Real 
Burners 


One  of  the 
problems  that 
confronts  the 
users  and  the 
sellers  of  oil 
burners  alike 
is  the  stor- 
age of  the 
fuel. 

A  lea  k  y 
tank  means 
a  dissatisfied 
customer,  re- 
gardless o  f 
the  satisfac- 
tion of  the 
burner. 

Everyone 
Is     Satisfied 

With 

Butler  Tanks 
Butler  Fuel 
Storage  Tanks 
are  not  ex- 
periments; 
they  have 
stood  the  test 
from  every 
angle. 

Butler 
Tanks  are 
constructed 
with  lapped 
seams,  double 
riveted,  with 
the  exception 
of  seam  around 
the  bottom 
where  rivets 
are  very 

closely  set.  The  solder  is  sweated  entirely  through  the  seam,  and  the 
spacing  of  the  rivets  is  closer  than  in  any  other  tank  we  know  of.  Every 
Butler  Tank  is  inspected  and  made  oil  tight  before  it  leaves  our  factory. 
The  special  construction  of  the  cover  makes  it  vapor  tight  and  dust  proof. 
Each  top  is  strongly  reinforced  inside  with  an  angle  riveted  to  the  tank. 
The  cone  cover  fits  closely  inside  the  tank  and  is  tightly  riveted  to  this 
angle.  The  top  edge  of  the  side  is  flanged  over  and  down  against  the 
cover  tightly  all  around,  then  carefully  soldered. 

NOTE:  Butler  Fuel  Tanks  can  also  be  furnished  knocked  down.  This 
type  is  ideal  for  long  shipments  and  is  of  particular  value  where  tank  is 
desired  in  basement.  It  is  not  necessary  to  remove  walls  or  make  special 
excavations  in  such  instances  if  Butler  Bolted  Fuel  Tanks  are  installed. 
Simply  erect  tank  in  allotted  space. 

This  type  of  tank  comes  completely  knocked  down.  It  is  easily  erected, 
being  put  together  with  bolts  at  the  seams.  The  fabrication  is  accurate 
and  all  parts  fit  together  readily  and  easily.  When  erected,  Butler  Bolted 
Fuel  Tanks  are  rigid  and  strong,  they  are  constructed  vapor-proof  and  are 
satisfactory  in  every  way. 

Such  tanks  as  Butler  makes  are  a  boon  to  the  Fuel  Oil  Industry.  Butler 
Tanks  have  friends  throughout  the  entire  country,- 

Ask  for  special  bulletins  and  prices.  They  can  be  furnished  up  to  1,500 
gallons  when  desired. 

BUTLER  MANUFACTURING  CO. 

Kansas  City,  Mo.       Minneapolis,  Minn. 


250  FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

DIFFICULT  PROBLEMS  EASILY  SOLVED 
AGAINST  FIRE 

A  HIGH  GRADE  RELIABLE 
FIRE  INSURANCE  POLICY 

FOR  FIRE 

A  CARHILL  PETROLEUM  CO. 
FUEL  OIL  CONTRACT 

WITH  BOTH  DOCUMENTS  IN  YOUR  SAFE  YOU'RE  SAFE 


The  best  and  cheapest  fuel  is 
at  the  command  of  our  supply 
department  and  the  fastest  and 
most  efficient  methods  of  quick 
delivery  are  at  the  finger  tips  of 
our  service  department. 
Try  us. 

CARHILL  PETROLEUM  Co.,  inc. 

Oliver  Bldg.  Kennedy  Bldg. 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.  Tulsa,  Oklahoma 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY  251 

Carson  Petroleum  Co. 

Complete  Line 

PETROLEUM 
PRODUCTS 


SPECIALTIES 


Q&S 


DOMESTIC  OR  EXPORT 


HOME  OFFICE 

208  South  La  Salle  Street 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 


252 


FUEL   OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 


The  Davis  Welding  &  Mfg.  Co. 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

New  York  Office:  200  Fifth  Avenue;  Suite  936 

Tel.  Gramercy  6274 

PRODUCT:  Truck  Tanks,  Standardized  Truck  Tank  Bodies, 
Underground  Storage  Tanks,  Specially  Designed  Fuel  Oil  Tank 
Bodies. 

DESCRIPTION:  Davis-Ohio  patented  construction  truck 
tanks  are  all  outside  welded.  They  are  fitted  with  Davis-Ohio 
patented  manholes ;  Davis-Ohio  patented  emergency  valves ; 
Davis-Ohio  patented  standardized  under-frames ;  Davis-Ohio 
steel,  wood-lined  and  attached  bucket  boxes,  and  Davis-Ohio 
bumpers.  We  have  an  engineering  department  equipped  to 
design  special  tanks  to  meet  special  requirements  of  all  kinds. 

REPRESENTATION:  Main  Sales  Office,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
New  York  Office.  Traveling  representatives  cover  the  entire 
country. 


1,200-gallon  fuel  oil  tank  on  5-ton  truck  for  the  Gulf  Refining  Company — 
Heating  coils,  2  cross  sectional  surge  plates  and  one  longitudinal  surge  plate, 
14"  manhole,  6"  filler  opening,  two  2"  McDonald  vents,  8"  piping  and  8" 
gate  valve. 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY  253 

1877  192O 

Franklin  OilWorks 

ESTABLISHED     1877 


43  years  of  complete  satisfaction 
rendered  our  customers  is  your 
guarantee  that  we  are  qualified  to 
meet  your  requirements  with  the 
same  excellent  service. 


Let  Us  Prove  It 

Phone,  wire  or  write  your  needs 
of  Pennsylvania,  Western  or 
Mexican  Fuel  or  Gas  Oils  to  us. 


FRANKLIN  OIL  WORKS 

General  Offices  and  Works 

FRANKLIN,  PENNSYLVANIA 


254  FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


FUEL   OIL 

The  increased  demand  for  oil  for  various 
fuel  purposes  has  caused  a  shortage  of 
this  product  which  can  only  be  relieved 
by  discovery  of  new  fields  or  a  reduc- 
tion in  the  gravity.  Now  is  the  time  to 
install  the  necessary  heating  units  to 
handle  the  heavier  oils. 

GAS  OIL 

This  product  has  fallen  short  of  the 
demand  and  will  always  be  a  high- 
priced  fuel.  We  advise  all  manufac- 
turers to  investigate  the  use  and  econ- 
omy of  heavier  gravity  oils. 

DISTILLATES 

This  product  will  be  in  demand  for  use 
in  Diesel  type  engines  and  the  new  do- 
mestic heating  systems  which  are  rapidly 
gaining  favor. 

WHEN  IN  NEED  OF  PETROLEUM 
FUEL  WIRE  OR  WRITE  TO 

GENERAL   REFINING   CO. 

14  E.  JACKSON  BLVD. 
CHICAGO,  ILL. 

TULSA  ARDMORE  CLEVELAND 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY  255 

For  an  Assured  Supply 

of  Your 

Fuel  Oil  Requirements 


Over  a  short  or  long 
term  period,  you  can 
safely  place  your  orders 
with  us  and  know  that 
you  will  be  cared  for 
as  specified  in  our 
agreement. 

Our  various  connec- 
tions enable  us  to 
promptly  fulfill  any 
and  all  orders. 

Specifications  positive- 
ly adhered  to. 

Phone  or  wire — 

ARCH   D.  GRIDER,   Inc. 

Nebraska  Bldg.,  Tulsa,  Okla. 


256 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


SUPERIOR 
QUALITY 


EFFICIENT 
SERVICE 


REFINERS  OF 

Gasoline,  Kerosene,  Fuel  Oils 

and 

Naphtha 

•REFINERIES 
OKMULGEE,OKLA-E.STLOUIS  ILL 

MAIN  OFFICE 

6O9  Federal" Reserve  Bank 

St.Louis,  Mo. 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


257 


The  Value  of 
Natioii-Wide 
Resources 


Our  offices  are  located  strat- 
egically in  the  heart  of  the 
Pittsburgh  iron  industry,  the 
Detroit  motor  industry,  and 
the  oil  fields  of  Oklahoma. 
From  our  central  Chicago 
office  stretch  railway  lines 
in  every  direction.  Thus  we 
have  nation-wide  resources 
at  our  command. 

Equipped  with  our  own  tank 
cars,  and  a  traffic  department 
that  gets  deliveries,  we  give 
our  customers  the  dual  advan- 
tage of  the  lowest  price  consist- 
ent with  dependable  service. 

JOHNSON  OIL  REFINING  CO. 

CHICACO 

208  S.  La  Salle  St. 
DETROIT        PITTSBURGH  TULSA 


Laboratory  Insurance 

So  unprecedented  is  the 
demand  for  gasolene  and 
lubricants  that  it  is  par- 
ticularly difficult  for  manu- 
facturers to  secure  a  uni- 
form grade  of  fuel  oil. 


Only  by  analytical  tests 
can  a  buyer  be  certain  of 
the  B.  T.  U.'s  in  a  ship- 
ment. 

To  insure  our  customers 
a  maximum  of  value  for 
their  purchases,  we  test  all 
oil  shipped  by  us.  It  is  a 
measure  of  protection  which 
has  earned  us  the  confi- 
dence of  scores  of  the  larg- 
est industrial  organizations. 


JOHNSON 

FUEL  OIL 


Gasolene 
Lubricants 


Naphtha 
Gas  Oil 


Fuel  Oil 
Flux  Oil 


Kerosene 
Road  Oil 


258  FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


H 


Keystone  Refinery  at  Robinson,  Illinois. 


PRODUCT:  Gasoline,  Kerosene,   Gas   Oil,   Fuel  Oil 
*  Neutrals,  Wax. 

DESCRIPTION:  We  have  refineries  at  Robinson,  111., 

and  Pryse,  Kentucky,  which  enables 

us  to  supply  Keystone  products  several  days  ahead  of 
tank  cars  from  Oklahoma.    The  Keystone  Company  has 
400   tank   cars  with  which  to  further  prompt  service. 
The  standing  of  the  company  and  its  financial  strength 
assure  the  buyer  that  he  will  be  taken  care  of — that  all 
contracts  will  be  fulfilled.  Expert  buyers  in  the  field  are 
able    to    secure    the    best    the  market   affords.      Our 
customers  may  be  depended  on  to  testify  that  Keystone 
prices  are  standard  in  industrial  markets. 

REPRESENTATIVES:  Home  office,  m  North 

Market    Street,    Chicago; 

Branch  Offices,  New  York,  Cleveland,  Ohio;  Saginaw, 
Michigan;  Tulsa,  Oklahoma;  Shreveport,  Louisiana. 

Prices  on  request 

KEYSTONE  OIL  &  MANUFACTURING  CO. 

Ill  North  Market  Street,  Chicago 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY  259 

Lake  Park  Refining  Company 

Manufacturers  and  Marketers 

GASOLINE 
NAPHTHA 
KEROSENE 
GAS  OIL 
FUEL  OIL 
600  CYLINDER  STOCK 

(Light  Green  Color) 

also 

Marketers  Blended  Gasoline 
REFINERIES 

Okmulgee,  Oklahoma  Ponca  City,  Oklahoma 


GENERAL  OFFICES  BRANCH  OFFICES 

Kansas  City,  Mo.  Tulsa,  Oklahoma 

324  Rialto    Bldg.  519    Mayo    Bldg. 


260  FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 

•          •         THE       •          . 

C  L  MAGUIRE 

PETROLEUM  CO. 

Specializing  in  the  market- 
ing of  high  grade  tested 

FUEL  OIL 

& 
GAS  OIL 


CHICAGO 

McCORMICK  BUILDING 

NEW  YORK  PITTSBURGH 

17  BATTERY  PL.  CENTURY    BLDG. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C.          ST.  PAUL 

MUNSEY  BUILDING  661  PELHAM  ST. 


FUEL    OIL  IN  INDUSTRY  261 


Quality  Goods  via  Quality  Service 

FROM 

Midco  Wells 

Midco  Pipe  Lines 

Midco  Refineries 

Midco  Tank  Cars 

TO  YOU 

MIDCO  LIGHT  FUEL  OIL 

Gravity  32/36 

Straight  Refined 

Not  a  Residue 

Over  19,000  B.  T.  U.'s  per  Ib. 

Free  Flowing 

Less  than  y2%  sulphur 

Pure  Paraffine  Base 

MIDCO  HEAVY  FUEL  OIL 

Gravity  24/28 
Less  than  Y-2%  sulphur 
Pure  Paraffine  Base 
Free  Flowing  at  60°  F. 

And  All  Other  Petroleum  Products 
In  Tank  Cars  or  Train  Loads 

Let  your   inquiries   come   forward — 
They  will  receive  our  immediate  attention. 

MIDCO  OIL  SALES  COMPANY 

Contractors    to    the  U.   S.    Government 

Phones 
Long  Distance  214  or  Local  Main  2252 

1901  Conway  Building 

CHICAGO 


262  FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 

RELIABILITY 

The  Watch-word  of  Mutual  Products 


Fuel   Oil  for  shipment  from 

three    refineries   in  our  own 

cars. 

Traffic  department,  which  is 

alive,  to  get  your  shipments 

to  you  on  time. 

Let  us  figure  on  your  require- 
ments. 


MUTUAL  OIL  CO 


Refineries:  General  Office: 

Chanute,  Kansas  Mutual  Building 

Glenrock,  Wyo.  1 3th  and  Oak 

Cowley,  Wyo.  Kansas  City,  Mo. 


FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 


263 


"PENFLEX" 
FUEL  OIL  HOSE 


FUEL   OIL    IN    INDUSTRY 


A  N  all-metal  flexible  hose  that  is  not 
^^  affected  by  fuel  oil.  Made  in  all 
sizes  and  lengths,  fitted  with  standard 
couplings.  Thousands  of  lengths  now 
in  constant  service. 

Ask  for  special  Bulletins  on  "Penflex" 
Hose  for  the  Oil  Industry 

Pennsylvania  Flexible  Metallic  Tubing  Company 

WESTERN  SALES  DEPT. 
447  PEOPLES  GAS  BLDG.,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 

PRINCIPAL  OFFICE  AND  FACTORY 
PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


264  FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 

SHAFFER 

OIL  AND  REFINING 
COMPANY 

g 

OUR  OWN 

HIGH  GRADE  CRUDE  OIL, 
MODERN  REFINERY 

AND 

LARGE  FLEET  OF  TANK  CARS 

INSURE  A  DEPENDABLE 

SUPPLY  OF 

FUEL  OIL 


208  So.  LaSalle  Street 

CHICAGO 


FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY  265 


FUEL  OIL 
GAS  OIL 

DISTILLATES 

S.  &  Z.  keeps  faith  with 
every  buyer  of  its  products. 

Frankly  and  openly  we  state 
specifications  and  delivery  and 
at  a  price  that  is  the  least  that 
can  be  consistent  with  the  quality 
to  be  delivered. 

Producers,  Manufacturers  and  Market- 
ers  of    Petroleum    and    Its    Products. 
(Connections  in  All  Fields) 

Send  us  your  requirements  now  for  future  or 
spot  delivery 

SLOAN  &  ZOOK 

BRADFORD,  PA. 


266 


FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 


A  Group  of  Agitators  at  the  Southern  Oil  Corporation's  Refinery  at  Yale,  Okla. 


A  LARGE  part  of  the  Southern 
**•  Oil  Corporation's  business  is 
the  production,  refining,  transport- 
ing and  wholesale  distribution  of 
highest  grade  Fuel  Oil. 

" Southern"  Fuel  Oil  is  shipped 
promptly,  anywhere,  from  our  refin- 
ery at  Yale,  Oklahoma.  Write  or 
wire  for  prices  on  tank  car  quantities. 


SOUTHERN  OIL  CORPORATION 

General  Offices:  Security  Bldg.,  Kansas  City,  Mo. 
Refinery:  Yale,  Oklahoma  Chicago  Office:  The  Rookery 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


267 


Automatic  Oil  Heating 


E2UID  fuel  is  the  most  efficient  of  all  fuels  in  all  types 
of  industries.     The  present  age  has  developed  mechan- 
ical devices  affecting  complete  combustion,  yielding 
higher  efficiencies  and  causing  the  public  to  suddenly  realize 
that  at  last  we  have 
reached  a  means  en-      '* — ? 
abling  us  to  turn  our 
backs  on  the  dirt  and 
disagreeable     charac- 
teristics of  black  coal. 

The  Steam  Corporation 
of  Chicago  is  offering  every 
home  in  the  country  an 
opportunity  to  avail  itself 
of  this  freedom,  offering 
not  only  freedom  from 
dirt  and  the  irksome 
drudgeries  of  coal  han- 
dling, but  yielding  the 
formerly  unknown  and 
complete  enjoyment  of 
positively  uniform  tem- 
perature. 

All  accomplished  by  NOKOL,  the  automatically  controlled  and 
electrically  driven  oil  heater. 

Simple !     Satisfying !     Safe ! 

The  burner  is  adaptable  to  nearly  all  types  of  present  heating  instal- 
lations. It  merely  necessitates  the  removal  of  the  grate  bars  and  a 
beautiful  clean  oil  flame  is  substituted  for  the  old  uncertain,  smoky, 
wasteful  coal  fire. 

The  device  consists  of  a  thermostat  and  regulator  for  automatic 
control,  a  motor  and  blower  to  supply  the  liquid  fuel  and  air;  and  a 
nozzle  and  combustion  chamber  for  creating  proper  mixture  of  oil  and 
oxygen,  effecting  complete  combustion.  Ignition  is  assured  by  an  ever 
burning  pilot  light. 

Sturdy  in  structure,  accurate  and  thorough  in  design,  the  pride  of 
useful  mechanical  appliances. 

NoKol  has  thoroughly  proven  that  it  offers  solution  to  all  coal 
problems.  Besides  rendering  many  happy  conveniences,  it  benefits  the 
home  owner  with  better  health  condition  by  completely  eliminating 
varying  temperatures  so  encouraging  to  our  deadly  foes,  pneumonia 
and  influenza. 

Automatic  Oil  Heat  ing 

On  the  National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  list  of  approved  appliances. 

THE  STEAM  CORPORATION 

215  North  Michigan  Avenue  Chicago,  Illinois 


268 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


Precise  Testing 

of  the  flash  point  of  the  fuel  oil  is  essen- 
tial because  it  determines  the  maximum 
temperature  to  which  the  oil  can  be  safely 
subjected  in  the  heaters.  Moreover,  as 
efficient  atomization  and  economical 
combustion  are  directly  affected  by  the  tem- 
perature maintained  in  the  heaters,  a 
thoroughly  accurate  and  reliable  tester 
should  be  used. 

That  the  TAG  Closed  Flash  Point 
Tester  meets  "Ehese  requirements  is 
evidenced  by  the  fact  that  it  has  been 
standardized  by  the  U.  S1.  Bureau  of 
Standards,  adopted  by  the  National 
Paint,  Oil  and  Varnish  Association,  etc. 

Ask   for    Catalog   F-598    which  includes  many  other    valuable  oil  testing 
instruments  for  fuel  oil  users. 

Economical  Burning 

is  assured  with  a  TAG  Oil 
Burner  Controller  regulating 
the  amount  of  oil  and  vapor- 
izing medium  admitted  to 
the  burners,  also  the  control 
of  dampers.  The  following 
advantages  are  thus  effected: 

(1)  An  even  boiler  pressure 
under  a  wide  variation  of  load 
is  automatically  maintained ; 
(2)  Oil  consumption  is  de- 
creased; (3)  Steam  or  air  used 
for  atomization  is  reduced;  (4) 
Adjusting  ratio  of  oil  to  steam 

or  oil  to  air  in  mixture  supplied  to  burners  is  eliminated 
Load  to  each  boiler  of  a  battery  is  distributed  automatically;  (6) 
Maximum  engine  or  turbine  efficiency  is  obtained  by  keeping 
the  steam  pressure  uniform;  (7)  Labor  is  reduced  due  to  lack 
of  need  for  frequent  attendance.  Ask  for  Catalog  F-425. 

N.  B. — We  can  also  supply  automatic  controllers  for 
heaters,  storage  tanks,  pumps,  etc. — automatic  level  Controllers — 
a  safety  device  for  automatically  shutting  off  the  oil  supply  to 
burners  when  the  vaporizing  medium  fails — indicating  and  re- 
cording thermometers,  etc. 

C.  J.  TAGLIABUE  MFG.  CO. 

Bush  Terminal  Brooklyn,  N.  Y. 


FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


269 


Oil   Burning  Furnaces 


Cut  No.  3015 

Tilting  Self-Contained 
Crucible  Type 


Cut  No.  3035 

Tilting 
Non-Crucible  Type 


— for  melting  brass,  bronze,  copper,  aluminum, 
nickel,  gold,  silver  and  other  non-ferreous 
metals.  Also  for  reduction  of  cyanide  precipitates 

These  Wayne  Metal-Melting  Furnaces  attain  a  new  standard  in 
rapid  heats  at  right  temperatures ;  strong,  sound  castings ;  min- 
imum loss  of  metal;  and  economical  use  of  fuel. 

The  burners  tilt  with  the  furnaces  continuing  the  fire  while 
pouring,  protecting  the  metal  and  maintaining  it  at  an  even 
temperature.  The  whole  or  part  of  the  melt  may  be  poured 
or  held  without  chilling,  overheatnig  or  oxidizing.  Working 
conditions  for  the  operator  are  ideal. 

In  the  crucible  type  the  crucibles  are  never  removed  or  han- 
dled by  tongs,  are  never  subjected  to  sudden  temperature 
changes  and  consequently  are  much  longer  lived. 

These  are  but  a  few  of  the  many  advantages  that  make  the 
Wayne  Oil-Burning  Metal-Melting  Furnaces  worth  your 
investigation.  Wayne  engineers  are  at  your  service  in  advis- 
ing and  planning,  without  cost  or  obligation.  Write  today 
for  bulletins  Nos.  3015FOI  and  3035FOI. 

Wayne  Oil  Tank  &  Pump  Co. 

743  Canal  St.  Fort  Wayne,  Ind. 

A  national  organisation  with  offices  in  thirty-four 
American   cities.    Representatives  everywhere. 


270 


FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 


FUEL  OIL 


GAS  OIL 


We  specialize  in  Fuel  and  Gas  oils. 

Straight  run  from  the  Crude,  free  from  water, 
slugs  and  foreign  materials.  Any  gravity  to 
meet  your  most  exacting  requirements. 

Let  us  figure  with  you  on  your  requirements 
for  either  SPOT  SHIPMENT  or  on  a 
CONTRACT. 

Wire,  write  or  phone  our  nearest  office. 


WENGER,  ARMSTRONG  PETROLEUM  CO. 

CHICAGO,  ILL. 

TRANSPORTATION  BUILDING 


PITTSBURGH,  PA. 

UNION  ARCADE  BLDG. 


TULSA,  OKLA. 

DANIELS  BLDG. 


DALLAS,  TEXAS 

ANDREWS  BLDG 


FUEL    OIL   IN  INDUSTRY 


271 


The  Worthington  Company 

123  W.  Madison  Street 
Chicago,  111. 

Product;  Oil  burners 
for  homes,  apartment 
buildings,  store  and 
office  buildings.  These 
burners  are  made  to 
fit  any  type  of  heating 
system,  steam,  water 
or  vapor.  Installations 
require  no  change  or 
remodelling  of  heating 
plant,  and  can  be  made 
by  any  efficient  plumber 
in  a  short  time. 

Description;  Worth- 
ington  Burners  are 
gravity  feed  burners 
and  are  made  in  vari- 
ous sizes.  They  have 
been  tested  for  over 
four  years.  In  Kansas 

City,  Missouri,  alone  there  are  over  1,000  installations,  and 
every  burner  is  giving  full  satisfaction.  The  fuel  used  is  dis- 
tillate of  36  degrees  Baume.  This  fuel  is  vaporized  and  thor- 
oughly mixed  with  air  before  burning.  This  accounts  for  the 
high  quality  of  the  heat  produced  and  for  the  fact  that  there 
is  no  smoke  or  soot.  The  burners  do  not  carbonize  and  require 
no  attention  after  starting.  Two  special  advantages  are,  (1) 
the  burner  heats  at  the  grate  line  and,  (2)  it  is  an  "over-feed" 
burner  with  flame  spreader  which  will  not  burn  out  the  furnace 
dome.  This  burner  is  of  especial  value  to  owners  of  private 
homes,  and  to  those  who  appreciate  cleanliness  and  convenience. 

Representatives;  informati0n  can  be  secured  from  repre- 
sentatives in  nearly  every  large  city,  or  the  company  will  be 
glad  to  put  those  interested  in  touch  with  the  nearest  office. 
All  inquiries  promptly  answered. 


Prices   and  full  description   on  request. 


272  FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY 


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FUEL   OIL  IN  INDUSTRY  273 

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